Advances in Metal Casting Technology: A Review of State of the Art, Challenges and Trends—Part II: Technologies New and Revived

by Dirk Lehmhus

Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Technology and Advanced Materials IFAM, Wiener Straße 12, 28359 Bremen, Germany
Metals 2024, 14(3), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14030334
Submission received: 25 February 2024 / Accepted: 8 March 2024 / Published: 14 March 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Casting Technology)

1. Introduction

It is a platitude that science and technology do not necessarily evolve along straight paths. Instead, cycles may occur which can sometimes, but not always, be explained by technology-centered models, such as the famed Gartner hype cycle [2,3,4], or more generally by economy-level observations, such as Kondratiev waves and all their relatives [5]. In other cases, new ideas, new market needs, or the expiration of limiting patents may support the reemergence of technologies. The casting industry has experienced its share of such effects, and in as far as they concern changing markets and boundary conditions, these have already been discussed in the preceding Part I of this text. The delimitation between both these parts is illustrated in Figure 1, which has also been included in a similar form in Part I [1].

Figure 1. An overview of topics covered in the present text. The graphic shows the areas of interest discussed in the previously published first part of this editorial (PART I in the diagram, see [1]) as well as those focused on in this second part. While Part I concentrated on boundary conditions, Part II is technology oriented.
Figure 2. Publication numbers sourced from Google Scholar and Scopus on semi-solid casting technologies: (a) semi-solid casting in general, (b) rheocasting and (c) thixocasting process family examples. Note that keywords had to be adapted slightly for scanning different databases.
Figure 3. Radio filter produced by means of the RSF/RheoMetalTM process. A unique feature of this product is the weight reduction of 1.6 kg facilitated by wall thicknesses as low as 0.4 mm at 40 mm height (aspect ratio 100). High conductivity low Si alloys were used, and thermal transport properties further increased by up to 20% depending on the alloy composition by means of heat treatments, as depicted in the top right diagram by means of arrows denoting the course of the latter (images provided by Comptech AB, Skillingaryd, Sweden).
Figure 4. Overview of rheocast and high-pressure die-cast aluminum and magnesium alloys in as-cast and T6 states in terms of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and elongation at failure. The latter is represented by the size of the spheres. Data are sourced from [20,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43].
Figure 5. An overview of principles controlling strength in compound casting. The image in the top left corner shows metallographic sections of infiltrated surface structures created via laser pulses to facilitate a micro-scale form fit. E in the image marks the worst case, poor wetting and bonding, while C denotes the middle position. More interesting are the extreme cases described in the image.
Figure 6. Sample images of parts produced by compound (a–c) and hybrid casting (d); (a,b) AlSi7Mg0.3 LPDC subsize front axle carrier frame demonstrator with integrated EN AW-6060 extrusion, general (a) and detail view (b); (c) AlSi9Cu3 HPDC e-motor housing demonstrator with integrated aluminum tubes as cooling channels, cast by ae group AG, Gerstungen, Germany; (d) aerospace secondary structure hybrid bracket combining a CFRP and an aluminum HPDC component [131] (all images by Fraunhofer IFAM).
Figure 7. The fundamental principle behind the concept of collapsible cores. Hollow microspheres are embedded in an open-porous matrix. Decoring is achieved via cold isostatic pressing. Fluid entering the open porosity of the matrix in which the microspheres are embedded exerts pressure on the latter, making them collapse. The integrity of the core is lost, and its remainders can easily be washed out [169,188].
Figure 8. (a) S-Max Pro sand printer as offered by ExOne, offering a build box of 1800 × 1000 × 700 mm (build volume 1260 L) and a build rate of up to 145 L/h, (b) examples of a printed core package for an internal combustion engine block consisting of furan-bonded components in black and hot hardened phenol-bonded components in beige (pictures kindly provided by ExOne (North Huntingdon, PA, USA); Copyright: ExOne).
Figure 9. How to enable sensors and electronic systems to survive integration in metal castings—general principles: Top left, simplify—example of a rip wire sensor [247]; top right, distribute—integrate just those components that need to be integrated [248]; bottom left, harden—use materials that can withstand the process loads [249]; bottom right, protect—shield the integrated system against thermal and/or mechanical loads [250].
Figure 10. Schematic diagram describing a concept for constant product evolution relying on monitoring of in-service loads and conditions in combination with a highly flexible manufacturing process like indirect AM, i.e., the printing of sand molds.
Figure 11. Digitalization meets the HPDC challenge. So much to measure, so much to correlate, and mere seconds left to do it in time to react on a part-by-part basis. Note that the list of parameters suggested here is indicative of the breadth of the issue only and certainly not complete.
Figure 12. The Lambda Architecture, an example of a compromise between securing accuracy and speed in data analytics by providing two interconnected analysis paths differing in timeliness and accuracy of information provided.
Figure 13. Ways of making use of data analytics—a general scheme in which almost anything, including casting processes, can take on the role of the object of observation represented by the black box.
Figure 14. Combining advanced simulation and modelling and AI or MOR techniques to realize a digital twin in casting technology covering both the design and production phase.
Figure 14. Combining advanced simulation and modelling and AI or MOR techniques to realize a digital twin in casting technology covering both the design and production phase.

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