Design and Manufacturing of High Performance, Reduced Charge Heat Exchangers

1. Overview:

  • Title: Design and Manufacturing of High Performance, Reduced Charge Heat Exchangers
  • Authors: Reinhard Radermacher et al.
  • Publication Year: 2023
  • Publication: Department of Energy Final Technical Report (DE-EE0008221)
  • Keywords: Heat Exchanger, Optimization, Multi-physics Analysis, Additive Manufacturing, Non-circular Tubes, Low-GWP Refrigerants

2. Background:

Heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, and refrigeration (HVAC&R) systems consume a significant portion of residential and commercial building energy. Reducing refrigerant charge to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions is a crucial objective. Traditional heat exchangers (HXs) using round tubes and fins have limitations in performance improvement and require further miniaturization to meet reduced refrigerant charge limits. Therefore, developing next-generation HXs that achieve both significant charge reduction and performance enhancement is essential. Previous research primarily focused on single-physics (thermo-hydraulic) analysis and shape optimization, neglecting manufacturing challenges and operational issues like flow maldistribution, fouling, vibration, and noise, hindering commercialization.

3. Research Objectives and Questions:

  • Research Objective: To design and manufacture high-performance air-to-refrigerant HXs that are 25% lighter and 25% more compact, with a 30% reduction in refrigerant charge compared to existing systems. The reduced charge will facilitate the use of A2L and A3 refrigerants in certain applications. The project also aims to address the manufacturing challenges of non-round, small-diameter tubes and water bridging during dehumidification.
  • Key Research Questions:
    • How can a multi-physics optimization framework be developed that considers the thermo-hydraulic performance, mechanical strength, aeroacoustic noise, and durability of heat exchangers utilizing non-circular tubes?
    • What novel manufacturing techniques can be developed for non-circular tube fabrication and tube-header integration?
    • How can the performance of the developed heat exchangers be experimentally validated, and their applicability to real-world HVAC&R systems be assessed?
  • Research Hypothesis: Utilizing non-circular tubes and a multi-physics optimization approach will achieve significant refrigerant charge reduction and performance enhancement.

4. Methodology:

  • Research Design: The research involved developing a multi-physics optimization framework, designing non-circular tube HXs, developing novel manufacturing methods, fabricating prototypes, and performing comprehensive experimental validation at both component and system levels.
  • Data Collection Methods: Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), Finite Element Analysis (FEA), experimental measurements (component and system level).
  • Analytical Methods: Multi-physics optimization framework (AAO, MOGA), Grid Convergence Index (GCI), metamodeling (Kriging), statistical significance testing.
  • Study Population and Scope: The optimization framework was applied to a wide range of refrigerants (R410A, R32, R454B, R290, supercritical CO2) and applications (air conditioners, heat pumps, gas coolers). Prototypes were fabricated using both conventional and additive manufacturing techniques (copper and aluminum).

5. Main Findings:

  • A novel multi-physics optimization framework enabled the design of non-circular tube HXs with up to a 40% reduction in tube-level refrigerant charge and a 15% improvement in thermo-hydraulic performance compared to a baseline HX.
  • Multi-physics models for mechanical strength, aeroacoustic noise, and fatigue were developed and validated, addressing manufacturing and operational challenges.
  • Novel manufacturing methods for non-circular tubes and tube-header integration were developed and successfully implemented in the fabrication of ten HX prototypes (nine using conventional methods and one using additive manufacturing).
  • Experimental validation of prototype HXs showed excellent agreement (±10-20%) with simulation predictions under dry conditions. Under wet conditions, while the simulation accurately predicted the total heat load, discrepancies were observed due to unexpected condensate bridging and refrigerant maldistribution.
  • Figure List
    • Figure 1: Cost comparison of AM to Conventional manufacturing methods [134].
    • Figure 2: Numerical optimization framework.
    • Figure 3: (Left) Generic multi-pass tube-fin HX; (Right) Generic HX with shape-optimized tubes.
    • Figure 4: HX depth wise cross-section: Design variable definitions for non-round tubes.
    • Figure 5: HX pass configuration definition: (left) one fluid pass; (right) three fluid passes.
    • Figure 6: Tube shape parameterization using NURBS.
    • Figure 7: Automated FEA simulation flowchart.
    • Figure 8: CFD domain, mesh, and boundary conditions.
    • Figure 9: Dry air thermal-hydraulic performance metamodel verification & statistics.
    • Figure 10: Aeroacoustics simulation CFD domain, boundary conditions, & mesh.
    • Figure 11: Aeroacoustics performance correlation verification & statistics.
    • Figure 12: Two-dimensional FEA model, boundary conditions, and mesh.
    • Figure 13: Sample FEA model contours of von Mises stress.
    • Figure 14: Boundary conditions for FEA simulations: (left) 2D and (right) 3D.
    • Figure 15: Tube-level mechanical performance metamodel verification & statistics.
    • Figure 16: Internal flow computational domain, boundary conditions, & sample mesh.
    • Figure 17: Internal flow correlation development framework.
    • Figure 18: CFD-based Nusselt number correlations verification and statistics.
    • Figure 19: CFD-based friction factor correlation (full tube flow) verification and statistics.
    • Figure 20: CFD-based friction factor correlation (developing flow) verification and statistics.
    • Figure 21: CFD-based friction factor correlation (fully developed flow) verification and statistics.
    • Figure 22: Dehumidification modeling methodology.
    • Figure 23: Dehumidification model: (Left) Sample domain & boundary conditions; (Right) Sample mesh.
    • Figure 24: CNTHX prototype.
    • Figure 25: CNTHX experimental validation: (Left) Outlet dry bulb temperature; (Right) Outlet relative humidity.
    • Figure 26: CNTHX dehumidification experimental validation: (Left) Outlet absolute humidity; (Right) Absolute humidity change.
    • Figure 27: CNTHX dehumidification experimental validation: Sensible heat ratio.
    • Figure 28: Lewis number parametric study results: (Top Left) Inlet air velocity (Reynolds number); (Top Right) Sensible heat transfer coefficient and mass transfer coefficient vs. inlet air velocity; (Bottom Left) Inlet relative humidity; (Bottom Right) Wall temperature.
    • Figure 29: CFD-based Lewis number correlation validation & statistics.
    • Figure 30: Optimal condenser designs colored by HX face area.
    • Figure 31: Optimal condenser designs colored by HX core material volume.
    • Figure 32: Optimal designs colored by HX core internal volume.
    • Figure 33: Sample non-round tube HX produced by additive manufacturing [16].
    • Figure 34: Single tube deformation test: (a) Experimental setup; (b) Numerical model.
    • Figure 35: Single tube deformation test: (a) Experimental setup; (b) Numerical model.
    • Figure 36: Single tube fatigue analysis: 4 tube designs using copper and aluminum.
    • Figure 37: Single copper tube fatigue analysis: Contours of logarithmic life cycles.
    • Figure 38: Single aluminum tube fatigue analysis: Contours of logarithmic life cycles.
    • Figure 39: Header cross-sections: (Left) Square; (Middle) Half-Round; (Right) Round.
    • Figure 40: Header stress distribution: (Left) Square; (Middle) Half-Round; (Right) Round.
    • Figure 41: Header cross-sections: (Left) Square; (Middle) Half-Round; (Right) Round.
    • Figure 42: Header stress distribution: (Left) Square; (Middle) Half-Round; (Right) Round.
    • Figure 43: Header stress analysis for imperfect tube-solder joints.
    • Figure 44: Solder stress distribution: (Left) Ideal fit vs. (Right) tube with 1.5° rotation.
    • Figure 45: Plastic stress-strain curves: (Top) SAC 396; (Bottom) Copper.
    • Figure 46: Solder plastic stress analysis: (Left) Plastic stress; (Right) Plastic strain.
    • Figure 47: Schematic model of full tube-header assembly.
    • Figure 48: Tube shapes of interest: (Top Left) Round; (Top Right) Ellipse; (Bottom) Non-Round Tube.
    • Figure 49: Tube bundle stress contours: (Top Left) Round; (Top Right) Ellipse; (Bottom) Non-Round Tube.
    • Figure 50: Tube bundle solder stress contours: (Top Left) Round; (Top Right) Ellipse; (Bottom) Non-Round Tube.
    • Figure 51: Header stress contours: (Top Left) Round; (Top Right) Ellipse; (Bottom) Non-Round Tube.
    • Figure 52: Life repeats vs. stress scale for different tube-header designs.
    • Figure 53: Images of HX prototypes manufactured during the project.
    • Figure 54: Non-round copper tube profile manufactured by drawing at STP.
    • Figure 55: Non-round aluminum tube profile manufactured by extrusion at Brazeway.
    • Figure 56: Non-round aluminum tube profile manufactured by extrusion at MetalKraft.
    • Figure 57: HX Prototype 6-C3: (Left, Middle) Under construction; (Right) Pressure Test and Baffle location shown in red.
    • Figure 58: HX Prototype 7-C4.
    • Figure 59: HX Prototype 10-E2: (Top) Tube bundle; (Middle) Header after casting; (Bottom) Cut header with tube ends showing.
    • Figure 60: Al 6063 tubes for all-aluminum HX prototype (one bundle shown).
    • Figure 61: Aluminum HX assembly (~75% complete HX prototype shown).
    • Figure 62: Aluminum HX pre-braze: (Left) Complete frame; (Right) Open tank ends.
    • Figure 63: (Left) Full aluminum HX prototype before brazing at Diesel Radiator; (Right) Post-braze inspection revealed small gaps near tube trailing edges.
    • Figure 64: Full aluminum HX prototype with multiple post-braze leaks.
    • Figure 65: Adhesive leak repair test: (Left) Pre-curing; (Middle) Post-curing; (Right) Pressure test.
    • Figure 66: Adhesive leak repair #1: (Top) Adhesive application; (Bottom) Leak test.
    • Figure 67: Adhesive leak repair and pressure test #2 showing small leaks.
    • Figure 68: Aluminum HX post-pressure test: (Top) Tank-header joint failure; (Bottom) Poor brazed interfaces between tube-header and header-tank.
    • Figure 69: Schematic of closed loop wind tunnel.
    • Figure 70: Schematic of pumped refrigerant loop.
    • Figure 71: Blockage testing time lapse for (Top) 3-C1 & (Bottom): 6-C3.
    • Figure 72: Prototype #1 energy balance: (Left) dry evaporator condition; (Right) dehumidifying condition.
    • Figure 73: Prototype #1 validation: (Left) dry evaporator capacity & airside pressure drop; (Right) dehumidifying condition capacity.
    • Figure 74: Prototype #1 wet condition experiment: (Left) air pressure drop; (Right); water droplets on HX tubes.
    • Figure 75: Prototype #2 condenser experimental validation: (Left) energy balance; (Right).
    • Figure 76: Component-level experimental validation summary: capacity.
    • Figure 77: Component-level experimental validation summary: airside pressure drop.
    • Figure 78: (a) Packaged A/C unit (b) Unit top view without top cover (c) Baseline tube-fin evaporator.
    • Figure 79: Evaporator closed loop schematic and connection to packaged unit.
    • Figure 80: Packaged unit test facility in environmental chamber.
    • Figure 81: (a) NTHX-FSE overview including front and side views and CAD rendering; (b) Installation orientation in packaged unit.
    • Figure 82: Modified NTHX-FSE: (Top) New inlet and outlet refrigerant ports; (Middle) Flow path; (Bottom) Installed in packaged unit.
    • Figure 83: Schematic of system model.

6. Conclusions and Discussion:

This research successfully developed a multi-physics optimization framework for designing and manufacturing high-performance, low-charge heat exchangers utilizing non-circular tubes. The framework is versatile and cost-effective, significantly reducing design time compared to conventional methods. Experimental validation confirmed the accuracy of the framework's predictions under dry conditions. However, the study encountered challenges in manufacturing an all-aluminum HX prototype and observed more severe than anticipated condensate bridging and refrigerant maldistribution in wet conditions.

7. Future Research:

  • Further investigation into improving the accuracy of wet-condition simulations, addressing condensate bridging and refrigerant maldistribution.
  • Development of more cost-effective and scalable manufacturing processes for mass production of non-circular tubes.
  • Optimization of header designs to further reduce size and weight and improve refrigerant distribution.
  • System-level testing with fully optimized HXs (both condenser and evaporator) to validate the overall system performance improvement and refrigerant charge reduction potential.

8. References Summary:

The report cites over 100 relevant publications covering various aspects of heat exchanger design, optimization, manufacturing, and testing. A detailed list of references is provided in the original report.

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