Joining Technologies for Aluminium Castings—A Review

This introduction paper is based on the paper "Joining Technologies for Aluminium Castings—A Review" published by "Coatings".

1. Overview:

• Title: Joining Technologies for Aluminium Castings—A Review
• Author: Dezhi Li, Carl Slater, Huisheng Cai, Xiaonan Hou, Yongbing Li and Qudong Wang
• Year of publication: 2023
• Journal/academic society of publication: Coatings
• Keywords: aluminium castings; porosity; hot cracking; laser welding; friction stir welding; arc welding; self-piercing riveting; clinching; electron beam welding

2. Abstract:

Aluminium castings have been widely used in many industries, including automotive, aerospace, telecommunication, construction, consumer products, etc., due to their lightweight, good electric and thermal conductivity, and electromagnetic interference/radio frequency interference (EMI/RFI) shielding properties. The main applications of aluminium castings are in automotive industry. For lighweighting purposes, more and more aluminium castings are used in the automotive vehicle structures to reduce weight, improve fuel efficiency, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, due to the features of cast aluminium, such as porosity, poor surface quality, a tendency toward hot cracking, and low ductility, joining these materials is problematic. In this paper, the joining technologies for aluminium castings and the related issues, mainly cracking and porosity, are reviewed. The current state-of-the-art of joining technologies is summarized, and areas for future research are recommended.

3. Introduction:

Aluminium castings have been used in many industry sectors, including automotive, aerospace, telecommunications, construction, consumer products, etc. For example, they have been used in a wide range of networking, telecommunications, and computing equipment as housing because of their good EMI/RFI shielding ability and heat dissipating ability; they have been used in small electronic products because of their durability, lightweight, and EMI/RFI shielding ability; and they are ideal for electric connectors because they are lightweight and have good electric conductivity. The main applications of aluminium castings are in the automotive industry. Due to global warming and government legislation, automotive vehicles are required to increase their fuel efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Lightweighting is a good practice in addition to vehicle electrification. To reduce the gross weight of vehicles, more and more lightweight aluminium castings are introduced into their structures. Cast aluminium has been used in automotive applications for the power train, such as engine blocks [1], cylinder heads, and transmissions, since the early 1900s, and its applications in structural components have increased greatly, including alloy wheels, longitudinal members, cross members [2], pillars [2], front steering knuckles, steering wheel cores, connection nodes, shock towers, etc., as shown in Figure 1. Aluminium die casting has been used as connection knots to join different aluminium alloy extruded profiles, as presented in Audi A2 and A8 aluminium space frames [3].

Applications of aluminium castings in automotive vehicles are mainly in two situations: 1. Complex structures, such as engine blocks; 2. Parts integration. In order to further reduce the weight and simplify the vehicle assembly process, the castings used in cars are getting larger with many previously individual parts integrated together. Tesla is pioneering in this area. Recently, Tesla produced some mega-castings with the enormous IDRA giga press (about 19.5 m long, 7.3 m wide and 5.3 m high) at Gigafactory Texas. Tesla is planning to use two huge single castings for the front and rear underbody and to connect them with a battery pack that is acting as part of the body structure [4]. The rear underbody casting is the integration of 70 different parts, and all together this new 3-section assembly strategy will reduce the total number of parts of this structure by 370.

However, due to the features of cast aluminium, such as porosity, poor surface quality, a tendency toward hot cracking, and low ductility, joining these materials is problematic. From the material point of view, aluminium weldability by fusion welding is mainly influenced by these characteristics: the existence of a surface layer of aluminium oxide and release agent residuals from casting, which will deteriorate wettability and introduce gases and inclusions in the weld; high thermal conductivity, which will consistently remove a large amount of heat from the welding zone; a relatively high thermal expansion coefficient, which will increase residual stress and cause greater distortion; hydrogen content in the alloy, which will cause porosity in the welds; a wide solidification range, which will cause segregation of alloying elements and hot cracking [6]. For these reasons, surface cleaning, using high energy sources, and proper welding process and fixture design are essential for fusion welding of aluminium castings. Hot cracking, including solidification cracking and liquidation cracking, can happen during fusion welding of aluminium castings. Fusion welding of aluminium cast parts generally requires a low gas content, especially a low hydrogen content. The air pockets and hydrogen contents in aluminium cast parts will cause porosity in the weld bead. Characteristic weld failures of die cast aluminium can be caused by the formation of solidification and liquation cracks and metallurgical and process-related pores [7]. Although mechanical joining methods, such as self-piercing riveting (SPR) and clinching, are less sensitive to the gas content of the aluminium castings, they require large plastic deformations of the materials. Since casting materials are normally more brittle and have low elongation, SPR and clinching will cause cracking during the joining processes.
Despite the widely increased use of aluminium castings in many different industry sectors, there is currently no comprehensive scientific review of the joining technologies for these materials. In order to facilitate further applications of aluminium castings and the development of their joining technologies, in this paper, the aluminium casting processes are briefly introduced and the joining technologies for Al castings are reviewed. Different joining technologies are introduced, their process parameters are discussed, their applications are demonstrated, and their recent developments are summarized. Particularly, the issues related to the joining of aluminium castings, especially hot cracking and porosity, and the methods that were used to improve these issues are reviewed. Finally, all joining technologies for aluminium castings are summarized, and areas for future research are recommended.

4. Summary of the study:

Background of the research topic:

Aluminium castings are increasingly utilized across industries like automotive, aerospace, and telecommunications due to their lightweight nature, good conductivity, and EMI/RFI shielding. In the automotive sector, they are crucial for lightweighting to improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions, appearing in powertrain and structural components. However, joining aluminium castings is challenging due to inherent material characteristics such as porosity, poor surface quality, a tendency towards hot cracking, and low ductility. These features complicate fusion welding and can lead to defects in mechanical joining processes.

Status of previous research:

While aluminium castings are widely used, the paper notes a lack of a comprehensive scientific review specifically focused on the joining technologies for these materials. Existing research has addressed individual joining methods or specific issues, but a holistic overview summarizing various techniques, their parameters, applications, recent developments, and particularly the persistent problems of hot cracking and porosity, was needed.

Purpose of the study:

The purpose of this paper is to facilitate further applications of aluminium castings and the development of their joining technologies. This is achieved by:

1. Briefly introducing aluminium casting processes.
2. Reviewing various joining technologies for Al castings, including their process parameters, applications, and recent developments.
3. Specifically reviewing issues related to joining aluminium castings, focusing on hot cracking and porosity, and methods to improve these issues.
4. Summarizing all joining technologies for aluminium castings and recommending areas for future research.

Core study:

The core of the study is a comprehensive literature review of joining technologies applicable to aluminium castings. It begins by outlining different aluminium casting processes (sand, shell mould, die casting, etc.) and how their characteristics (gas content, porosity, ductility) affect joinability. The paper then systematically reviews various joining methods:

• Solid-State Welding: Friction Stir Welding (FSW).
• Fusion Welding: Laser Welding, Arc Welding (including TIG, MIG, PCGTA), Laser Arc Hybrid Welding, Electron Beam Welding (EBW).
• Mechanical Joining: Self-Piercing Riveting (SPR), Clinching, Flow Drill Screw (FDS).
• Other Joining Methods: Compound casting, adhesive bonding, pulse electric-current bonding.

For each technology, the paper discusses its principles, process parameters, advantages, disadvantages, applications, and recent advancements, with a particular emphasis on addressing challenges like hot cracking and porosity. The study culminates in a summary of current issues and an outlook for future research in the field.

5. Research Methodology

Research Design:

The research design is a comprehensive literature review.

Data Collection and Analysis Methods:

Data was collected from a wide range of existing scientific and technical literature, including peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, patents, industry handbooks, and technical reports. The analysis involved synthesizing this information to provide a structured overview of aluminium casting processes, various joining technologies, their process parameters, applications, recent developments, and the common issues encountered (particularly hot cracking and porosity). The study compares different technologies and summarizes methods used to mitigate joining-related defects.

Research Topics and Scope:

The primary research topic is the joining technologies for aluminium castings. The scope includes:

• An overview of different aluminium casting processes (e.g., sand casting, die casting, squeeze casting, SSM) and their influence on material properties relevant to joining.
• A detailed review of various joining methods:
  • Solid-state welding (Friction Stir Welding).
  • Fusion welding (Laser Welding, Arc Welding, Electron Beam Welding, Laser-Arc Hybrid Welding).
  • Mechanical joining (Self-Piercing Riveting, Clinching, Flow Drill Screw).
  • Other miscellaneous joining methods.
• Discussion of process parameters, advantages, disadvantages, and applications for each joining technology.
• In-depth analysis of critical issues in welding aluminium castings, specifically hot cracking (solidification and liquation cracking) and porosity (sources and mitigation strategies).
• Recent developments and future research directions in the field.

6. Key Results:

Key Results:

This review summarizes the current state-of-the-art in joining technologies for aluminium castings, highlighting key challenges and advancements:

• Casting Process Influence: Different aluminium casting processes (sand, die, squeeze, SSM, etc.) produce castings with varying levels of porosity, gas content, surface quality, and mechanical properties, all of which significantly impact their joinability. Processes like high-quality HPDC, squeeze casting, and SSM casting generally yield lower gas content and better properties for joining.
• Friction Stir Welding (FSW): As a solid-state process, FSW is well-suited for aluminium castings, reducing issues like porosity and distortion. It can produce high-quality joints. However, challenges include complex weld paths, tool wear, exit holes, and the need for rigid clamping. Optimized parameters (tool design, rotation/traverse speed, axial force, tilt angle) are crucial to avoid defects.
• Laser Welding: Offers high speed, low heat input, and precision. However, it is sensitive to the gas content in castings, and aluminium's high reflectivity can be problematic. Techniques like dual beams, beam oscillation, vacuum environments, and appropriate shielding gas can mitigate porosity and improve weld quality. Post-weld heat treatment can enhance mechanical properties if the casting is heat-treatable.
• Arc Welding (MIG, TIG): Widely used due to cost-effectiveness and versatility. However, higher heat input can lead to distortion and exacerbate porosity if gas content is high. Filler metal selection, shielding gas (e.g., Ar-He mixtures), and pulsed current techniques (like PCGTA) can improve weld quality and refine microstructure.
• Laser Arc Hybrid Welding: Combines the benefits of laser and arc welding, potentially increasing welding speed, penetration depth, gap bridging capability, and reducing porosity compared to individual processes.
• Electron Beam Welding (EBW): Typically performed in a high vacuum, leading to excellent degassing and deep, narrow welds with minimal distortion. Low vacuum or atmospheric EBW is emerging, which could expand its applicability.
• Mechanical Joining (SPR, Clinching, FDS): These cold forming processes are not sensitive to the gas content of castings. However, they require sufficient ductility in the cast material to avoid cracking during deformation. Heat treatment to improve ductility or optimized tool/process design (e.g., F-SPR) can be necessary. FDS offers a single-sided joining solution.
• Hot Cracking: A major concern in fusion welding of many aluminium alloys (especially 6xxx series, Al-Cu, Al-Mg). It is influenced by alloy composition (Si, Mg content are critical), solidification range, grain structure, and restraint. Mitigation strategies include using appropriate filler metals to alter weld pool chemistry, grain refinement (e.g., with Ti, Sr), controlling welding speed and heat input, and minimizing restraint.
• Porosity: A prevalent defect in fusion welding of castings, primarily caused by hydrogen (from moisture, lubricants, surface oxides, or dissolved in the base material) and keyhole instability (in laser/EBW). Reducing porosity involves pre-cleaning surfaces, using low gas content castings, optimizing welding parameters (e.g., slower speed for arc welding, stable keyhole for laser), shielding gas control, vacuum, beam oscillation, or electromagnetic stirring.
• Heat Treatment: Can be applied pre- or post-joining. Pre-joining heat treatment can reduce gas content (for fusion welding) or improve ductility (for mechanical joining). Post-joining heat treatment can recover/improve mechanical properties in heat-treatable alloys, but its effectiveness depends on the joining process and alloy.

Figure Name List:

• Figure 1. Typical applications of aluminium castings in automotive vehicles [5]. Nemak/American Metal Market Conference, 2015, accessed on 1 October 2022.
• Figure 2. Friction stir welding, (a) a schematic diagram of friction stir welding [43], (b) shoulder shape and end face features [43], (c) different probe designs [43], and (d) a typical macrograph showing various microstructural zones [42]. Reproduced with permission from [42], Elsevier, 2005. Reproduced with permission from [43], Taylor and Francis, 2012.
• Figure 3. Hardness profiles of FSWed aluminium alloys (a) AA5083 and (b) AA7075-T6. Reproduced with permission from [49], Taylor and Francis, 2009.
• Figure 4. Range of optimum FSW conditions for different axial forces for 4 mm thick ADC12 Al-Si casting alloy welded with 15 mm diameter shoulder and 5 mm diameter and 3.9 mm long threaded pin. Reproduced with permission from [62], Elsevier, 2006.
• Figure 5. The joint strength in (a) transverse, and (b) longitudinal directions with various welding speeds. Reproduced with permission from [66], Elsevier, 2003.
• Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a remote laser welding system (source: Orion Automation, accessed on 1 October 2022). (https://www.industrysearch.com.au/panasonic-robot-welding-systems-robot-laser-welding/p/149654).
• Figure 7. The three modes of laser welding (accessed 20 April 2023). Reproduced with permission from [76], AMADA WELD TECH Inc., 2016.
• Figure 8. Relative absorption of different materials to different lasers (source: Akela Laser, accessed on 1 October 2022) [77].
• Figure 9. 3D reconstructed transparent images of porosity distribution in all the aluminum alloy samples welded at various ambient pressures. Reproduced with permission from [97], Elsevier, 2020.
• Figure 10. Micro-hardness of SSM A356 across the weld for as cast, pre HT and post HT samples, FZ (fusion zone), HAZ (heat affected zone) and BM (base metal). Reproduced with permission from [95], Elsevier, 2007.
• Figure 11. Yield strength (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and elongation of unwelded and welded samples in as cast, pre-HT and post-HT conditions. Reproduced with permission from [95], Elsevier, 2007.
• Figure 12. Schematic diagram of an arc welding system.
• Figure 13. Influence of filler wires on the mechanical properties, (a) microhardness at pulse frequency of 5 Hz, (b) impact energy. Reproduced with permission from [109], Elsevier, 2015.
• Figure 14. Schematic diagram of laser arc hybrid welding (source: Lincoln Electric) and the weld bead patterns for MIG/MAG welding, laser welding and hybrid welding. Reproduced with permission from [114], Elsevier, 2018.
• Figure 15. Cross-section of a laser-TIG weld bead on a 4 mm thick AlSi11Mg plate. Reproduced with permission from [87], Taylor and Francis, 2005.
• Figure 16. Electron beam welding, (a) Principle of electron beam welding (source: Keyence) [118], (b) Schematic diagram of electron beam welding, D, penetration depth, d, beam focal diameter and v, weld velocity, and (c) Different weld penetration and welding width with different parameters, (i) acceleration voltage 150 kV, focal distance 350 mm, (ii) acceleration voltage 60 kV, focal distance 350 mm, (iii) acceleration voltage 150 kV, focal distance 1200 mm, and (iv) acceleration voltage 60 kV, focal distance 1200 mm, reproduced from [123].
• Figure 17. Influence of ambient pressure on beam focus. Reproduced from [115].
• Figure 18. Schematic diagram of SPR. Reproduced from [127].
• Figure 19. Schematic diagram of clinching process. Reproduced from [149].
• Figure 20. Macrograph of clinching tools: (a) round split; (b) round grooved; (c) round flat; and (d) rectangular. Reproduced with permission from [148], Elsevier, 2016.
• Figure 21. Cross sections of clinched joints with AlSi10Mg at the die side in, (a) as-cast and (b) T6 condition. Reproduced from [154].
• Figure 22. SPR joint buttons, (a), A380, (b), W3 as casted, (c), AA6061, (d), W3, 250 °C heat treated, (e), W3, 350 °C heat treated, (f), W3, 400 °C heat treated. Modified from [150] with permission from Springer Nature, 2020.
• Figure 23. The lap shear strength comparison of SPR joints for the dies with different depths at various heat treatment conditions. Reproduced with permission from [150], Springer Nature, 2020.
• Figure 24. Joint buttons (a,c) and cross-sections (b,d) of a wrought and casting aluminium stack SPR joint: 1.5 mm AA5754 + 2.5 mm AA5754 + 3 mm Magsimal-59 with severe cracks (a,b) and mild cracks (c,d).
• Figure 25. Schematic diagram of flow drill screw process (source: EJOT, accessed on 20 April 23). (https://www.ejot.co.uk/Industrial-Fasteners/Applications/General-Fabrications/Castings/FDS%C2%AE/p/VBT_FDS).
• Figure 26. (a) Circular patch test for solidification cracking and schematic diagram of materials around a weld pool; Macrographs showing: (b) solidification cracking; (c) liquation cracking; Micrographs showing: (d) solidification cracking; (e) liquation cracking. Modified from [185] with permission from Springer Nature, 2003.
• Figure 27. Hot crack sensitivity of aluminium alloys dependent on Si- and Mg-content. Reproduced with permission from [90], Elsevier, 2017.
• Figure 28. Cracking susceptibility of different Al-Cu cast alloys as a function of laser scanning speed [200]. Copyright CC-BY, 2003.
• Figure 29. Calculated hydrogen solubility in aluminium. Reproduced with permission from [229], Taylor and Francis, 1999.
• Figure 30. X-ray inspections followed by image analysis of laser-welded beads show the influence of surface preparation in A356. Reproduced with permission from [234], Elsevier, 2003.
• Figure 31. Influence of die casting processes on the gas content in the cast aluminium and the gas porosity in laser welded joints. Reproduced with permission from [88], EAA, 2015.
• Figure 32. Porosity in MIG weld beads of two different pressure die-cast plates (2 mm thick). On the left, AlSi9Mg (Silafont 36), and on the right, AlMg5Si2Mn (Magsimal 59). The gas contents are indicated as a percentage. Reproduced with permission from [87], Taylor and Francis, 2005.

7. Conclusion:

Due to the requirements of lightweighting and manufacturing process simplification in the automotive industry, more and more aluminium castings are used in automotive structures. However, due to their natural features, such as porosity, poor surface quality, a tendency toward hot cracking, and low ductility, the joining of these materials is a challenge.
There are many different casting processes for cast aluminium, such as sand casting, shell mould casting, pressure die casting, lost foam casting, permanent mould casting, investment casting, centrifugal casting, squeezing casting, semi-solid casting, continuous casting, etc. The aluminium castings from different casting processes have different gas content, surface finish, and mechanical properties, which will give them different joinability by fusion welding and mechanical joining, so to achieve a good joint of cast aluminium, selecting the right casting process to make the cast parts is equally important as choosing the right joining method and the right joining process parameters.
Different grades of aluminium castings have different mechanical properties, different cracking susceptibility, and different joint porosity issues. As a result, they will have different joinability. Among the high-strength aluminium alloys, Al-Si alloys are less sensitive to solidification cracking, and Al-Cu, Al-Mg, Al-Mg-Si, Al-Zn-Mg, etc., are more sensitive to solidification cracking during welding. In general, a high solidification/freezing range will cause high susceptibility to hot cracking, and a high fraction of eutectic phase in the microstructure and a eutectic phase with sufficient wettability will result in a decreasing susceptibility to hot cracking. Even with the same grade of castings, when they are made by different casting processes, their gas content and joinability will be different. Castings made by high-quality HPDC, squeeze casting, and SSM casting will have a much lower gas content.
There are many joining technologies that can be used to join aluminium castings, such as friction stir welding, laser welding, arc welding, electron beam welding, laser arc hybrid welding, self-piercing riveting, clinching, flow drill screw, etc.
Friction stir welding (FSW) is proven suitable for welding aluminium castings because it is a solid-state welding process and is less sensitive than other welding techniques as to the gas content of the aluminium cast parts. However, FSW is only suitable for parts with simple welding lines, such as linear or circular; parts must be clamped rigidly, and a backing plate will be required for parts that are not stiff enough. Generally speaking, the aluminium castings for fusion welding need to have a low gas content, and in particular, a low hydrogen content. The air pockets and hydrogen contents in cast aluminium parts will cause porosity in the weld bead. Due to the large weld pool and slower welding speed, arc welding processes are less sensitive to gas content, and in this case, the parameters for degassing are very important. Electron beam welding is the least sensitive fusion welding process to gas content due to the degassing effect of vacuum, but the size of the parts that can be welded can be limited. Due to the outgassing, high heating and cooling rates, and complex weld fluid flow, laser welding is the most sensitive to gas content, and for this reason, aluminium castings for laser welding need to have a very low gas content to avoid a high porosity in the welded joints. Hybrid welding, with a combination of laser beam welding and TIG or MIG welding, can be beneficial to the welding of aluminium castings. Some innovative process variants, such as electron beam welding, using a multiple-process technique or hybrid laser welding can configure the molten baths to encourage degassing and minimise the undesired formation of inhomogeneous pores in the joint area. With these processes, it is promising to achieve joints with low porosity.
Mechanical joining methods, such as SPR and clinching, are not as sensitive to gas content as fusion welding processes, but the aluminium castings need to be ductile enough to not generate severe cracks during the joining process. Sometimes, heat treatment of the aluminium castings to make them more ductile is essential. In the meantime, process optimisation can be used to reduce the number and severity of the cracks generated.
As to fusion welding and friction stir welding of aluminium castings, if the casting is suitable for heat treatment, then heat treatment after welding or a combination of pre- and post-welding heat treatments will be more efficient in improving joint mechanical properties than heat treatment before welding. The welding process can cancel out the effect of heat treatment if it is done before welding. For mechanical joining processes such as SPR and clinching, because sufficient ductility is required from the aluminium castings to avoid severe cracking, heat treatments to improve ductility will need to be conducted before the joining.
Hot cracking susceptibility is dependent on a number of factors, such as alloying content, grain structures, solidification rate, constrains, etc. Different methods can be used to reduce hot cracking during fusion welding, such as using proper filler wires, adding grain refining elements, reducing welding speed, methods to reduce residual stress, methods to reduce solidification rate, etc. To diminish the probability of this type of cracking, excess material restraint should be avoided. For crack-sensitive alloys, careful selection and control of process parameters, together with the use of an appropriate filler wire, are essential for successful welding. When welding aluminium alloys, it is desirable to have a weld-metal composition that is away from the peak of the crack sensitivity curve. Dual beam laser welding, electron beam welding, and laser arc hybrid welding are beneficial for reducing solidification cracks.
Porosity formed during welding of materials can result in loss of mechanical strength, creep, fatigue, and corrosion failures. There are three potential causes for porosity formation during fusion welding of aluminium castings. One is the absorption and subsequent entrapment of the ambient gases during welding; the other is the existing gas content in the base material; and the third is the entrapment of gas bubbles due to the imperfect collapse of the keyhole during keyhole welding. Hydrogen is the main contributor to porosity and the main gas content in the pores, due to the significantly different solubility of hydrogen in liquid and solid aluminium. The sources of hydrogen include aluminium oxide layer, surface lubricant, surface contaminants, moisture, etc. Cleaning the surface of parts before welding can reduce the source of hydrogen and the resulting porosity. Optimising the welding parameters can reduce the joint porosity of aluminium castings, but the most efficient way is to improve the casting process to reduce the gas content of cast parts. It is found that the following methods can reduce the welding porosity of aluminium casting: laser arc hybrid welding, dual beam laser welding, electron beam welding, beam oscillation, electromagnetic field degassing, etc. Increasing the size of the weld pool and reducing the solidification rate will give more time for the gas bubbles to move out of the weld pool, which is beneficial for reducing weld porosity. It needs to be careful when using Sr to refine the grain structures of aluminium castings. It had been reported that, for certain compositions of aluminium castings, adding Sr could increase the porosity.
With the increased number of applications of aluminium castings in the automotive sector, it is believed that more research will be conducted on the joining of aluminium castings, both to themselves and to other materials, to improve cracking and porosity issues. In the meantime, new joining technologies will be developed, and current joining processes will be upgraded with automation, process monitoring, and new technologies to improve joint quality and make these joining methods more efficient, reliable, and cost-effective. Furthermore, more digital technologies, such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, will be applied to the joining technologies to predict and optimize process parameters, improve process efficiency and joint quality, and assist process modelling.

8. References:

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9. Copyright:

• This material is a paper by "Dezhi Li, Carl Slater, Huisheng Cai, Xiaonan Hou, Yongbing Li and Qudong Wang". Based on "Joining Technologies for Aluminium Castings—A Review".
• Source of the paper: https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13050958

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