The Effect of Microstructural Features, Defects and Surface Quality on the Fatigue Performance in Al-Si-Mg Cast Alloys

This introduction paper is based on the paper "The Effect of Microstructural Features, Defects and Surface Quality on the Fatigue Performance in Al-Si-Mg Cast Alloys" published by "Jönköping University, School of Engineering, Dissertation Series No. 084".

Figure 1. Al-Si phase diagrams: a) hypoeutectic, b) eutectic, and c) hypereutectic microstructures.

1. Overview:

Title: The Effect of Microstructural Features, Defects and Surface Quality on the Fatigue Performance in Al-Si-Mg Cast Alloys
Author: Toni Bogdanoff
Year of publication: 2023
Journal/academic society of publication: Jönköping University, School of Engineering, Dissertation Series No. 084
Keywords: Al-Si-Mg cast alloys, fatigue performance, microstructural features, defects, surface quality, melt quality, copper addition, oxide bifilms, HIP, heat treatment, cast aluminium.

2. Abstract:

Global warming is driving industry to manufacture lighter components to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Promising candidates for achieving this are aluminium-silicon (Al-Si) cast alloys, which offer a high weight-to-strength ratio, excellent corrosion resistance, and good castability. However, understanding variations in the mechanical properties of these alloys is crucial to producing high-performance parts for critical applications. Defects and oxides are the primary reasons cast components in fatigue applications are rejected, as they negatively impact mechanical properties.

A comprehensive understanding of the correlation between fatigue performance and parameters such as the α-aluminium matrix, Al-Si eutectic, surface roughness, porosities, hydrogen content, oxides, and intermetallic phases in Al-Si castings has not been reached.

The research presented in this thesis used state-of-the-art experimental techniques to investigate the mechanical properties and crack-initiation and propagation behaviour of Al-Si-Mg cast alloy under cyclic loading. In-situ cyclic testing was conducted using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) combined with electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD), digital image correlation (DIC), and focused ion beam (FIB) milling. These techniques enabled a comprehensive study of parameters affecting fatigue performance, including hydrogen content, surface roughness, oxides, and intermetallic phases. More specifically, we investigated the effect of melt quality, copper (Cu) content, oxide bifilms, surface quality, and porosity.

The increased Cu concentration in heat-treated Al-Si alloys increased the amount of intermetallic phases, which affected the cracking behaviour. Furthermore, oxide bifilms were detected at crack-initiation sites, even in regions far away from the highly strained areas. Si- and Iron (Fe)-rich intermetallics were observed to have precipitated on these bifilms. Due to their very small size, these oxides are generally not detected by non-destructive inspections, but affect mechanical properties because they appear to open at relatively low tensile stresses. Finally, Al-Si alloy casting skins showed an interesting effect in terms of improving fatigue performance, highlighting the negative effect of surface polishing for such alloys.

3. Introduction:

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO2, is a major global focus, driving industries like automotive to adopt lightweight materials [1]. Aluminium-silicon (Al-Si) cast alloys are prime candidates due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, cost efficiency, corrosion resistance, and castability [2, 3]. The use of recycled aluminium is increasing, offering significant energy savings compared to primary production [4-6]. While pure aluminium has limited strength, alloying, particularly with Si, Cu, and Mg, enhances mechanical properties through solid-solution and precipitation strengthening [7-12]. However, the high-cycle fatigue (HCF) performance of cast aluminium components remains a challenge, as fatigue accounts for approximately 90% of failures [13]. Defects such as oxide films (bifilms) and pores significantly reduce fatigue life [14-17], often limiting components to only 1% of their potential fatigue life [17]. While some defects like porosity can be detected [19], others like bifilms often remain hidden until failure [20, 21]. Surface conditions, including roughness, also critically influence fatigue initiation [16]. Standard laboratory fatigue tests on machined samples may not fully represent the behaviour of actual components with casting skins [22]. Therefore, a better understanding of how microstructural features, defects, and surface quality impact the mechanical performance, especially fatigue, of cast Al-Si alloys is crucial for optimizing components for demanding applications.

4. Summary of the study:

Background of the research topic:

The need for lightweight components to reduce CO2 emissions drives the use of Al-Si cast alloys in various industries, especially automotive [1, 2]. These alloys offer advantageous properties like high strength-to-weight ratio and good castability [3]. However, their application, particularly in fatigue-critical parts, is often limited by inherent microstructural features and defects.

Status of previous research:

Fatigue failure is a major concern for cast Al components [13]. Defects like porosities and oxide bifilms, along with surface roughness, are known to significantly degrade fatigue performance [14-17, 22]. While much research exists, a comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between the α-aluminium matrix, Al-Si eutectic, various defects (porosity, oxides), intermetallic phases, hydrogen content, and surface roughness on fatigue life is still lacking [24]. Conflicting results and gaps exist in the literature, particularly regarding the role of surface roughness and defects originating from the melt state [24].

Purpose of the study:

The primary aim of this research was to investigate and understand the influence of various microstructural features, defects (including oxides/bifilms, porosity), melt quality parameters (hydrogen content), alloying additions (specifically Copper), and surface quality (roughness, casting skin) on the mechanical properties, particularly the fatigue performance (crack initiation and propagation), of Al-Si-Mg based cast alloys [25, 28]. The goal was to provide knowledge to optimize these alloys for high-performance applications and potentially reduce energy consumption in production.

Core study:

The research focused on several key aspects influencing the fatigue performance of Al-Si-Mg and Al-Si-Mg-Cu cast alloys:

Melt Quality: Assessing the impact of melt handling and treatments (like rotary degassing) in foundry production on the final mechanical properties, using techniques like RPT and tensile testing to reveal both visible (pores) and hidden (bifilms) damage (Supplements I, II).
Role of Copper: Investigating how varying Cu content (0 to 3 wt.%) affects fatigue crack initiation and propagation mechanisms in both as-cast and heat-treated conditions, correlating this with changes in microstructure (intermetallic phases like Q-phase, θ-phase) and matrix properties (Supplements IV, V).
Hidden Damage (Oxide Bifilms): Characterizing the nature and effect of inherent oxide bifilms, often termed 'hidden damage', on local strain concentration and fracture behaviour using DIC, SEM, FIB-tomography, and STEM-EDS. Investigating the role of HIP in mitigating these defects (Supplements III, VI, VII).
Surface Quality and Defect Size: Evaluating the combined effects of surface condition (as-cast skin vs. machined/polished) and internal defect characteristics (pore size distribution influenced by hydrogen content) on the fatigue life of Al-Si-Cu-Mg castings (Supplement VIII).

5. Research Methodology

Research Design:

The research employed an experimental approach based on a positivistic perspective and deductive reasoning [132, 133]. Experiments were conducted on both laboratory scales under controlled conditions and in full-scale industrial foundry settings (HPDC and sand casting). Standardized testing procedures (ISO, ASTM) were followed where applicable, with modifications noted [25]. The design aimed to isolate and study the effects of independent variables (e.g., Cu content, surface condition, hydrogen level, processing steps) on dependent variables (mechanical properties, fatigue life, crack behaviour) [26, 27].

Data Collection and Analysis Methods:

A range of techniques were utilized:

Material Preparation: Casting via HPDC, sand casting (coated/uncoated moulds), and directional solidification (Bridgman furnace) [29-33]. Post-casting treatments included Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) and various T6-like heat treatment cycles (solution treatment, quenching, ageing) [38, 50].
Melt Quality Assessment: Reduced Pressure Test (RPT), HYCAL hydrogen analysis, Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) for chemical composition, Spiral fluidity test, Density measurements (Archimedes principle) [35, 45-49].
Microstructural Characterisation: Optical Microscopy (OM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS), Wavelength Dispersive Spectroscopy (WDS), Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) for grain size/orientation, Focused Ion Beam (FIB) milling for cross-sectioning, 3D tomography, and Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) sample preparation [39-41]. Quantitative analysis included SDAS, grain size, particle size/distribution (e.g., 3NN distance), phase fractions, and defect characterization.
Mechanical Testing: Tensile testing (ST, σY, eF) according to ISO 6892-1, Axial fatigue testing (R=-1, 50 Hz) using staircase method (ISO 12107) and for S-N curve generation [43].
Crack Initiation/Propagation Studies: In-situ cyclic fatigue testing within an SEM using miniature compact-tension samples, Digital Image Correlation (DIC) using MatchID software (2D for micro-scale, 3D Stereo DIC for macro-scale) to map strain fields (Von Mises strain) [41, 43-44, 53-56].
Defect Analysis: Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, fracture surface analysis (fractography) using SEM [62, 71].
Statistical Analysis: Weibull distribution analysis for elongation (eF), quality index (QT), and fatigue life (Nf), Lognormal distribution analysis for pore size (deq), Basquin law parameters estimation, Anderson-Darling goodness-of-fit tests, linear regression [59, 64, 91, 97, 102, 104, 106].

Research Topics and Scope:

The research addressed four main questions (RQ1-RQ4) focusing on:

RQ1: Influence of the production process (ingot to final component, including melt handling and degassing) on mechanical properties of cast Al-Si components, particularly using recycled alloys. Studied EN-AC 46000 in HPDC.
RQ2: Effect of Cu addition (0-3 wt.%) on fatigue crack initiation and propagation in as-cast and heat-treated Al-Si-Mg alloys. Studied modified Al7SiMg cast via Bridgman furnace.
RQ3: Identification, characterization, and impact of hidden damage (oxide bifilms) originating from the molten state on mechanical properties. Studied EN-AB 42000 (sand-cast), EN-AC 46000 (HPDC), C355 (Bridgman). Investigated HIP effects.
RQ4: Combined effects of surface roughness (casting skin vs. machined/polished) and internal defects (porosity linked to hydrogen) on fatigue performance of Al-Si castings. Studied Al7Si3CuMg sand-cast alloy.

6. Key Results:

Key Results:

Melt Quality & Degassing: Assessing melt quality requires more than RPT; tensile testing, especially elongation (eF) analysed with Weibull statistics, reveals 'hidden' entrainment damage from melt handling (transfer steps) [Supplement I]. Rotary degassing in the studied industrial case (EN-AC 46000) reduced visible porosity in RPT samples but did not improve, and potentially worsened, the actual mechanical properties (eF, QT) of the final casting due to breaking down existing coarse bifilms into finer ones without effective removal [Supplement I, II]. Degassing eliminated the Weibull mixture distribution observed in non-degassed samples but shifted the single distribution towards lower quality [Supplement II].
Effect of Copper: Increasing Cu content (0 to 3.2 wt.%) in Al7SiMg alloys increased yield strength (σY) and tensile strength (ST) in both as-cast and heat-treated conditions, but significantly reduced ductility (eF), especially in the as-cast state due to brittle Cu-rich intermetallic phases (Q-Al5Mg8Cu2Si6, θ-Al2Cu) [Supplement IV, V]. Heat treatment improved strength further and mitigated the drop in ductility compared to as-cast. Crack initiation shifted from slip bands/Si particles (low Cu) to eutectic regions/Cu-rich phases (high Cu) in as-cast. In heat-treated alloys, crack initiation occurred in primary dendrites (low Cu), shifting to interdendritic regions and grain boundaries (high Cu). Crack propagation paths became more tortuous and shifted from trans-dendritic towards interdendritic/intergranular with increasing Cu content and matrix strengthening. Higher Cu content led to more secondary cracking during fatigue, particularly in heat-treated conditions [Supplement V, VII].
Hidden Damage (Oxide Bifilms): Oxide bifilms, formed during melt handling and casting, act as significant 'hidden' defects. DIC revealed localized strain concentrations associated with these bifilms, even far from geometric stress raisers [Supplement VI]. FIB/STEM-EDS analysis confirmed these cracks contained aluminium oxide layers, indicating they were pre-existing bifilms that opened under load [Supplement VI, VII]. These bifilms act as nucleation sites for intermetallic phases (e.g., Al5FeSi) and Si particles [Supplement VII]. HIP effectively closed gas porosity but did not fully heal or eliminate these oxide bifilms, which could still open during subsequent fatigue loading [Supplement III, VII]. Damage observed in castings should be differentiated between entrainment damage (bifilms from liquid state) and mechanical damage (from service loading) [Supplement VII].
Surface Quality & Porosity: Contrary to common assumptions, the presence of the as-cast surface skin significantly improved fatigue life compared to machined and polished (PS) surfaces for sand-cast Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloy [Supplement VIII]. Polishing removed the skin, exposing subsurface defects (pores/bifilms) directly to the surface, thereby reducing or eliminating the crack initiation phase and drastically lowering fatigue life. Fatigue failure initiated from subsurface defects (pores/imperfections near the skin) in as-cast samples, but directly from surface-exposed defects in polished samples. Increased hydrogen content led to larger pores and higher porosity fraction, resulting in wider fatigue life distributions (lower Weibull modulus M), especially for polished samples, but had less impact on the mean fatigue life for rough as-cast surfaces. The interaction between surface quality and pore size distribution is complex. Existing fatigue life prediction models (e.g., Juvinall) require modification to account for the beneficial effect of casting skin [Supplement VIII].

Figure 50. The probability density functions of Weibull distributions for (a) samples with casting skins and (b) MS and PS samples.

Figure 20. Beginning of crack initiation in as-cast condition: a) Alloy Cu 0; b) Alloy Cu 1.5.

Figure 14. The cross-sections of the RPT samples at different stages of production.

Figure 12. a) Dimensions of the compact-tension sample in mm; b) miniature stage for in-situ cyclic testing; c) FOV of the compact-tension sample.

Figure 9. The geometry of the casting in the sand mould.

Figure 8. a) Cylindrical rods (length 150 mm and diameter 9 mm). b) schematic illustration of the Bridgman furnace; c) stair casting geometry (dimensions in mm).

Figure 6. The stress-strain curve of an as-cast Al7SiMg alloy, with emphasis placed on the essential parameters used in the research presented in this thesis.

Figure 5. a) Impurity-induced twinning [97]; b) restricted TPRE growth [98].

Figure 4. Hydrogen solubility in pure aluminium and aluminium alloys [42].

Figure 3. Entrainment of surface oxides [79].

Figure 2. Secondary dendrite arm spacing.

Figure Name List:

Figure 1. Al-Si phase diagrams: a) hypoeutectic, b) eutectic, and c) hypereutectic microstructures.
Figure 3. Entrainment of surface oxides [79].
Figure 4. Hydrogen solubility in pure aluminium and aluminium alloys [42].
Figure 5. a) Impurity-induced twinning [97]; b) restricted TPRE growth [98].
Figure 6. The stress-strain curve of an as-cast Al7SiMg alloy, with emphasis placed on the essential parameters used in the research presented in this thesis.
Figure 7. Overview of the research methodology.
Figure 8. a) Cylindrical rods (length 150 mm and diameter 9 mm). b) schematic illustration of the Bridgman furnace; c) stair casting geometry (dimensions in mm).
Figure 9. The geometry of the casting in the sand mould.
Figure 10. The production process used in the HPDC plant.
Figure 11. a) Schematic diagram of the tensile testing sample; b) a sample exposed to the HIP process and heat treatment.
Figure 12. a) Dimensions of the compact-tension sample in mm; b) miniature stage for in-situ cyclic testing; c) FOV of the compact-tension sample.
Figure 13. Tensile- and fatigue-testing sample geometry.
Figure 14. The cross-sections of the RPT samples at different stages of production.
Figure 15. The Weibull distributions of elongation in the different stages of production.
Figure 16. Cross-sections of RPT samples taken at different stages of the production process, with and without degassing.
Figure 17. The Weibull distributions of the structural quality of the two production routes.
Figure 18. (a) Alloy Cu 0 in as-cast condition, b) Alloy Cu 0 in heat-condition.
Figure 19. Three-nearest-neighbour (3NN) distances between particles: a) Si particles; b) Q-phases. The error bars represent the standard deviation.
Figure 20. Beginning of crack initiation in as-cast condition: a) Alloy Cu 0; b) Alloy Cu 1.5.
Figure 21. Crack propagation in all heat-treated alloys, imaged using a combination of EBSD and DIC: a–b) Alloy Cu 0; c–d) Alloy Cu 0.5; e–f) Alloy Cu 1.5; g–h) Alloy Cu 3.0. The yellow dashed lines represent grain boundaries, superimposed from EBSD, and the red arrows point to the initiation sites. The colour bar represents the von Mises equivalent strain, and is valid for all frames.
Figure 22. Crack propagation in all as-cast alloys, imaged using a combination of EBSD and DIC: a) Alloy Cu 0; b) Alloy Cu 0.5; c) Alloy Cu 1.5; d) Alloy Cu 3.0. The yellow dashed lines represent grain boundaries, superimposed from EBSD. The final fracture, shown as a black dashed line in the picture, was manually added. The colour bar represents the von Mises equivalent strain.
Figure 23. Development of slip bands during the cycling testing of alloys with different Cu contents: a) Alloy Cu 0, at the crack edge; b) Alloy Cu 0, 150 µm from the crack edge; c) Alloy Cu 1.5, at the crack edge, d) Alloy Cu 1.5, 150 µm from the crack edge.
Figure 24. Development of secondary cracks (indicated by arrows) in heat-treated Alloy Cu 3.0 after a) 825 cycles; b) 925 cycles. c–d) magnified micrographs of the secondary cracks visible in b).
Figure 25. FIB milling was used to investigate the material around the crack in heat-treated alloys. a) Alloy Cu 0, test stopped at 1253 cycles; b) and c) show related sections. d) Alloy Cu 3.0, test stopped at 640 cycles; e) and f) show related sections. The black arrows point to Fe-rich phases, the white arrows point to superficial cracks, and the red arrows point to the crack coming from underneath.
Figure 26. Three-dimensional reconstruction of the FIB sections of cracks in heat-treated alloys. a) FIB section of Alloy Cu 0, test stopped at 1253 cycles, and b) three-dimensional reconstruction. c) FIB section of Alloy 3.0 Cu, test stopped at 640 cycles, and d) three-dimensional reconstruction. The red arrows show the cracks, and the blue arrows indicate the intermetallic phases.
Figure 27. Microstructures of Al7SiMg alloy: (a) as-cast condition, 16 mm thickness, (b) as-cast condition, 32 mm thickness. The red squares highlight a magnified area. The red ovals highlight the inhomogeneous microstructure in the 32 mm-thick sample.
Figure 28. Microstructures of the Al7SiMg alloy: (a) heat-treated condition, 16 mm thickness; (b) heat-treated condition, 32 mm thickness. The red squares highlight a magnified area.
Figure 29. CT scan of the material in as-cast condition, showing the porosities (blue); having been HIPped (red); and having been heat-treated (green). a) 16 mm, b) 32 mm.
Figure 30. Crack propagation in the HIPped and heat-treated conditions. a–c) the 16 mm sample, showing initiation and propagation; d–f) the 32 mm sample, showing cracks and evaluation of crack propagation.
Figure 31. Full-field distributions of von Mises equivalent strain in a sample A under a load of (a) 11.9 kN and (b) 15.4 kN.
Figure 32. (a) Sample A after fracture. The red circle indicates the location of the strain concentration seen in Figure 31b. (b), which is an SEM image of the oxide film found in the strain-concentration area. (c) Increased magnification of the oxide draped over the microstructure.
Figure 33. Stress-strain curve throughout tensile testing of sample A for both the strain concentration and a symmetry reference point.
Figure 34. (a) DIC strain field of sample B under a load of 15.9 kN just before fracture. (b) Close-up image of the upper strain concentration with an optical microscope after failure. (c) Visible crack on the sample surface after paint removal in the SEM.
Figure 35. (a) Location of the lamella in front of the crack. (b) Extraction of the lamella. (c) STEM-EDS map of oxygen distribution in the lamella, which revealed the oxide film inside the crack.
Figure 36. a) The FOV (300 × 300 μm) had no visible cracks after 100 cycles. b) cracks outside the FOV after 100 cycles.
Figure 37. a) After 200 cycles, the cracks showed no continued propagation. (b) A crack was initiated at the notch after 550 cycles.
Figure 38. a) Two cracked phases perpendicular to the loading direction. (b) BSE image of the trenching of the lamella. (c) BSE image of the 1.2 μm lamella before lifting.
Figure 39. a) BSE, b) STEM, c) HADF, d) DF images of the lamella. The arrow points to the observed line around the open crack.
Figure 40. a) SEM image of a crack. b) STEM-EDS image of the same crack, showing the intermetallic phases around it.
Figure 41. a) STEM-EDS measurement of oxygen in the crack. b) EDS line scan results from points 1 to 51.
Figure 42. Three-dimensional scans of a 900 × 900 µm area of as-cast components a) without coating (rough surface) and b) with coating (fine surface).
Figure 43. The investigated surface conditions: a) PS, b) FS, and c) RS.
Figure 44. Microstructure of the cast material, showing the aluminium dendrites, Si particles, and Cu- and Fe-rich phases.
Figure 45. a) The microstructure of the sand-cast material with low hydrogen content; b) an enlarged view of the area highlighted by a red square in (a), showing oxides in the vicinity of the porosity; c) a sample with high hydrogen content, where two distinct pore sizes are evident.
Figure 46. The probability density functions of the pore size distributions for the LH and HH conditions.
Figure 47. Wöhler curves for a) LH and b) HH samples.
Figure 48. Fatigue-life distributions for (a) LH and (b) HH samples with different surface conditions.
Figure 49. a) The crack initiation point in the fracture surface of an LH sample with a casting skin. The red arrow is pointing to the casting skin. b) The crack initiation point in the fracture surface in the PS sample, at a defect located at the surface.
Figure 50. The probability density functions of Weibull distributions for (a) samples with casting skins and (b) MS and PS samples.

7. Conclusion:

This research investigated microstructural features, defects, and surface quality effects on Al-Si-Mg cast alloy fatigue performance. Key conclusions are:

Melt Quality: Complete melt quality assessment requires both RPT and tensile testing to reveal hidden damage. Rotary degassing may not improve properties if the melt is initially damaged and can eliminate Weibull mixture distributions without improving mechanical performance.
Role of Copper: Increasing Cu content enhances strength (σY, ST) but reduces ductility (eF), especially as-cast. It increases intermetallic phases, altering crack initiation/propagation paths and increasing secondary cracking, particularly after heat treatment.
Hidden Damage: Oxide bifilms are critical defects originating from the melt, acting as nucleation sites and opening under tensile stress. DIC and STEM-EDS confirmed their presence and impact. HIP closes pores but may not fully heal bifilms. Distinguishing entrainment damage from mechanical damage is crucial.
Surface Quality & Defect Size: Casting skin significantly improves fatigue life compared to polished surfaces by acting as a barrier to subsurface defects and delaying/preventing crack initiation from surface-exposed defects. Polishing drastically reduces fatigue life. Increased porosity (from higher H) primarily affects fatigue life variability, interacting complexly with surface condition. Designing components with minimal machining benefits fatigue performance.

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9. Copyright:

This material is a paper by "Toni Bogdanoff". Based on "The Effect of Microstructural Features, Defects and Surface Quality on the Fatigue Performance in Al-Si-Mg Cast Alloys".
Source of the paper: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-61111

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Tags: Al-Si alloy; ,aluminum alloys; ,Aluminum Casting; ,CAD; ,Die casting; ,Microstructure; ,Quality Control; ,Sand casting; ,secondary dendrite arm spacing; ,Thin films