A Comprehensive Study of Cooling Rate Effects on Diffusion, Microstructural Evolution, and Characterization of Aluminum Alloys

This article introduces the paper 'A Comprehensive Study of Cooling Rate Effects on Diffusion, Microstructural Evolution, and Characterization of Aluminum Alloys' published by 'MDPI'.

1. Overview:

Title: A Comprehensive Study of Cooling Rate Effects on Diffusion, Microstructural Evolution, and Characterization of Aluminum Alloys
Author: Atiqur Rahman, Sriram Praneeth Isanaka and Frank Liou
Publication Year: 2025
Publishing Journal/Academic Society: Machines, MDPI
Keywords: cooling rate; solidification; diffusional growth; microstructure; characterization of aluminum alloy; manufacturing process; heat treatments

Figure 1. Microstructure of the Al-Cu alloy generated at different CRs with different methods: (a–c) using sand mold casting method, CR 1.65 K/s, (d–f) using cooper mold casting method, CR 5.7 K/s, (g–i) using twin-roll casting method, CR 117.3 K/s [4]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.

2. Abstracts or Introduction

Abstract:
"Cooling Rate (CR) definitively influences the microstructure of metallic parts manufactured through various processes. Factors including cooling medium, surface area, thermal conductivity, and temperature control can influence both predicted and unforeseen impacts that then influence the results of mechanical properties. This comprehensive study explores the impact of CRs in diffusion, microstructural development, and the characterization of aluminum alloys and the influence of various manufacturing processes and post-process treatments, and it studies analytical models that can predict their effects. It examines a broad range of CRs encountered in diverse manufacturing methods, such as laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), directed energy deposition (DED), casting, forging, welding, and hot isostatic pressing (HIP). For example, varying CRs might result in different types of solidification and microstructural evolution in aluminum alloys, which thereby influence their mechanical properties during end use. The study further examines the effects of post-process heat treatments, including quenching, annealing, and precipitation hardening, on the microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminum alloys. It discusses numerical and analytical models, which are used to predict and optimize CRs for achieving targeted material characteristics of specific aluminum alloys. Although understanding CR and its effects is crucial, there is a lack of literature on how CR affects alloy properties. This comprehensive review aims to bridge the knowledge gap through a thorough literature review of the impact of CR on microstructure and mechanical properties."

Introduction:
"Cooling rate (CR) is the rate at which the temperature of alloys decreases during their cooling phase of manufacture, and this rate of temperature change is of considerable importance in materials science and engineering [1-3]. As an example, the microstructure and features of an Al-Cu alloy are significantly influenced by CR, as demonstrated in Figure 1."

3. Research Background:

Background of the Research Topic:

Cooling Rate (CR) is a pivotal factor that definitively influences the microstructure of metallic parts during manufacturing. This influence is exerted across various manufacturing processes, with factors such as cooling medium, surface area, thermal conductivity, and temperature control playing crucial roles. These factors collectively contribute to both anticipated and unforeseen effects on the mechanical properties of the final product.

Status of Existing Research:

Despite the recognized importance of Cooling Rate (CR) and its effects, a notable gap exists in the current body of literature. There is a lack of comprehensive studies specifically detailing how Cooling Rate (CR) directly affects the properties of various alloys. This deficiency in understanding hinders the ability to precisely control and optimize manufacturing processes for desired material outcomes.

Necessity of the Research:

To bridge the identified knowledge gap, this comprehensive review is essential. It aims to thoroughly investigate the impact of Cooling Rate (CR) on both the microstructure and mechanical properties of metallic materials. By consolidating and analyzing existing research, this review seeks to provide a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between Cooling Rate (CR) and alloy characteristics, ultimately contributing to more informed and effective manufacturing strategies.

4. Research Purpose and Research Questions:

Research Purpose:

This comprehensive study aims to explore the multifaceted impact of Cooling Rate (CR) in the context of aluminum alloys. The primary objectives are to elucidate the effects of CR on:

Diffusion processes within aluminum alloys.
Microstructural development during solidification and post-processing.
Characterization of the resultant aluminum alloy microstructures and mechanical properties.
Influence of diverse manufacturing processes and post-process heat treatments on CR effects.
Analytical models used for predicting and optimizing CR to achieve specific material characteristics.

Key Research:

The key research areas investigated in this study include:

Examination of a broad spectrum of Cooling Rates (CRs) encountered across diverse manufacturing methodologies, encompassing Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF), Directed Energy Deposition (DED), casting, forging, welding, and Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP).
Analysis of the effects of post-process heat treatments, such as quenching, annealing, and precipitation hardening, on the microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminum alloys under varying CRs.
Discussion of numerical and analytical models employed to predict and optimize Cooling Rates (CRs) for achieving targeted material characteristics in specific aluminum alloys.

Research Hypotheses:

While not explicitly stated as formal hypotheses, the research is guided by the underlying premise that:

Cooling Rate (CR) is a dominant factor governing the microstructure and, consequently, the mechanical properties of aluminum alloys.
By manipulating Cooling Rate (CR) through various manufacturing and post-processing techniques, it is possible to tailor the microstructure and achieve desired mechanical properties in aluminum alloys.
Numerical and analytical models can effectively predict and optimize Cooling Rate (CR) parameters to achieve specific material outcomes.

5. Research Methodology

Research Design:

This study employs a comprehensive review design, meticulously examining existing literature to synthesize knowledge and address the research objectives.

Data Collection Method:

The data collection method is based on a thorough and systematic review of a wide range of scholarly articles, research papers, and technical publications relevant to cooling rate effects on aluminum alloys.

Analysis Method:

The analysis method involves a critical evaluation and synthesis of the collected literature. This includes:

Qualitative analysis: Examining the descriptive findings and experimental observations reported in the literature regarding the impact of cooling rate on microstructure and mechanical properties.
Comparative analysis: Comparing the effects of different cooling rates across various aluminum alloys, manufacturing processes, and heat treatments.
Discussion of models: Analyzing and discussing the numerical and analytical models used to predict and optimize cooling rates, assessing their validity and applicability.

Research Subjects and Scope:

The research focuses on aluminum alloys and encompasses a broad scope, including:

Material: Various aluminum alloy compositions and series.
Manufacturing Processes: Additive Manufacturing (LPBF, DED), Casting, Forging, Welding, Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP).
Heat Treatments: Quenching, Annealing, Precipitation Hardening.
Cooling Rates: A wide range of cooling rates from slow cooling in casting to rapid cooling in additive manufacturing and quenching.

6. Main Research Results:

Key Research Results:

Cooling Rate and Microstructure: Increasing the Cooling Rate (CR) promotes dendrite formation, enhances grain refinement, and markedly reduces Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing (SDAS). This is visually demonstrated in Figure 1, showcasing the refined microstructure of Al-Cu alloys produced via twin-roll casting at a high CR of 117.3 K/s, compared to the coarser structures from sand mold casting at 1.65 K/s.
Growth Rate, Temperature Gradient, and Solidification: The relationship between growth rate (R) and temperature gradient (G), illustrated in Figure 2, significantly impacts the morphology and size of the solidification microstructure. Higher cooling rates (GxR) lead to finer structures, while lower cooling rates result in coarser structures.
Alloying Elements and Cooling Rate: Alloying elements in aluminum alloys, such as copper, magnesium, and silicon, significantly affect microstructural evolution under varying CRs. Faster CRs lead to microstructural refinement, resulting in finer grain sizes and more uniform distribution of alloying elements, as summarized in Table 1.
CR Control in Manufacturing: Accurate control of Cooling Rates (CRs) is essential in aluminum alloy processing and is managed through various manufacturing techniques, including casting, forging, additive manufacturing, and welding. Different manufacturing processes and post-processing techniques employ distinct CR ranges to achieve specific material properties, as detailed in Table 3.
Numerical and Analytical Modeling: Numerical, analytical, and empirical techniques, including Finite Element Modeling (FEM), Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), and Quench Factor Analysis (QFA) models, are crucial for comprehending and predicting the effects of CRs. These models, validated against experimental data, help optimize thermal parameters to achieve desired microstructures and mechanical properties.
Empirical Evaluation of CR: Empirical evaluation techniques, such as thermocouple measurements, infrared thermography, and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), are vital for capturing thermal profiles and understanding microstructural evolution. Figure 3 illustrates the effect of varying cooling rates on grain size, SDAS, tensile strength, hardness, and ductility across different aluminum alloys.

Analysis of presented data:

Figure 2. The relationship between growth rate (R) and temperature gradient (G) [8]. Reprinted with
permission from the publisher. — Figure 2. The relationship between growth rate (R) and temperature gradient (G) [8]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.

Figure 5. CRs during air quenching of aluminum alloys 7075 and 7020 [102]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.

Figure 6. Effect of CR on microstructure and grain size in aluminum alloy 6061 [72]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher. Figure 6 shows the microstructure of twin-roll casting aluminum alloy 6061 sheets at various CRs: (a) cooled in furnace (CR 0.006 °C/s), where grain size is large; (b) coated with asbestos (CR 0.2 °C/s), where grain size is smaller; (c) cooled in air (CR 2.4 °C/s), exhibiting fine, equiaxed grains with uneven distribution; (d) cooled by wind (CR 3 °C/s); substantially coarse grains are observed at wind-cooled conditions; (e) cooled by water (CR 21.3 °C/s), with grain sizes being large and uneven and the grain boundaries being coarse; (f) average grain sizes with different CRs.

Figure 7. Aluminum alloy A356 size and distribution of Fe-bearing phases at various CRs [191]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher. (a) 0.19 °C/s CR, where intermetallic phases are formed, and α(Al) dendrites and eutectic silicon are shown in the area; (b) 0.65 °C/s CR; the eutectic silicon is more refined and fibrous in shape with this increase in CR; (c) 6.25 °C/s CR, which is the highest in this evaluation; the SDAS and grain size are refined

Figure 8. Grain distribution of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy at various CRs [192]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher. Figure 8 shows the distributions of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy grains (a–d) and dendrites (e–h) at various CR values as follows: The CR of the alloys is 0.3 K/s for alloy A (a,e), 3.4 K/s for alloy B (b,f), 10.4 K/s for alloy C (c,g), and 66.2 K/s for alloy D (d,h). The grain structure of AlZn-Mg-Cu alloys B (b), C (c), and D (d) exhibits deformation, flattening, and inclined shear bands. As the CR gradually increases in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys A to D (e–h), the grain distribution becomes more uniform, and the coarse grain decreases.

Figure 9. Columnar dendrite sonification process at different CRs [210]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.

Figure 10. (a). Liquid–solid interface position and (b). solid volume fraction at different CRs [210]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.

Figure 1 visually compares the microstructure of Al-Cu alloys produced under different Cooling Rates (CRs) using various casting methods. It clearly demonstrates that increasing CR leads to a refined microstructure with smaller grain sizes and reduced SDAS.
Figure 2 schematically illustrates the relationship between growth rate (R) and temperature gradient (G) and their combined effect on solidification microstructure morphology. It highlights how varying G/R and GxR ratios influence grain structure from planar to equiaxed dendritic.
Figure 3 graphically presents the impact of varying cooling rates on the microstructure and mechanical properties of different aluminum alloys. It shows trends in grain size, SDAS, tensile strength, hardness, and ductility as CR changes across alloys like AL-ZN-MG-CU, AL-SI, AL-CU, and AL-MG-SI.
Figure 4 provides a flowchart summarizing the key areas of Cooling Rate (CR) effects addressed in the study, including microstructure, diffusional effects, manufacturing processes, heat treatments, and modeling.
Figure 5 displays Cooling Rate (CR) curves during air quenching for aluminum alloys 7075 and 7020, illustrating the temperature drop and average CRs achieved during heat treatment.
Figure 6 presents micrographs showing the microstructure and grain size of aluminum alloy 6061 sheets produced at various CRs using twin-roll casting. It visually confirms that higher CRs result in finer grain structures.
Figure 7 compares the size and distribution of Fe-bearing phases in aluminum alloy A356 at different CRs, demonstrating the refinement of microstructure with increasing CR.
Figure 8 illustrates the grain distribution of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy at various CRs, showing the transition from coarser to finer and more uniform grain structures with increasing CR.
Figure 9 depicts the columnar dendrite sonification process at different CRs, visualizing the effect of CR on dendrite morphology and spacing.
Figure 10 shows graphs of liquid-solid interface position and solid volume fraction over time at different CRs, illustrating the influence of CR on solidification kinetics.

Figure Name List:

Figure 1. Microstructure of the Al-Cu alloy generated at different CRs with different methods: (a-c) using sand mold casting method, CR 1.65 K/s, (d-f) using cooper mold casting method, CR 5.7 K/s, (g-i) using twin-roll casting method, CR 117.3 K/s [4]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.
Figure 2. The relationship between growth rate (R) and temperature gradient (G) [8]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.
Figure 3. Effect of varying cooling rates on aluminum alloys' CR microstructure and mechanical properties.
Figure 4. The various areas of CR that are addressed in this study.
Figure 5. CRs during air quenching of aluminum alloys 7075 and 7020 [102]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.
Figure 6. Effect of CR on microstructure and grain size in aluminum alloy 6061 [72]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher. Figure 6 shows the microstructure of twin-roll casting aluminum alloy 6061 sheets at various CRs: (a) cooled in furnace (CR 0.006 °C/s), where grain size is large; (b) coated with asbestos (CR 0.2 °C/s), where grain size is smaller; (c) cooled in air (CR 2.4 °C/s), exhibiting fine, equiaxed grains with uneven distribution; (d) cooled by wind (CR 3 °C/s); substantially coarse grains are observed at wind-cooled conditions; (e) cooled by water (CR 21.3 °C/s), with grain sizes being large and uneven and the grain boundaries being coarse; (f) average grain sizes with different CRs.
Figure 7. Aluminum alloy A356 size and distribution of Fe-bearing phases at various CRs [191]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher. (a) 0.19 °C/s CR, where intermetallic phases are formed, and a(Al) dendrites and eutectic silicon are shown in the area; (b) 0.65 °C/s CR; the eutectic silicon is more refined and fibrous in shape with this increase in CR; (c) 6.25 °C/s CR, which is the highest in this evaluation; the SDAS and grain size are refined
Figure 8. Grain distribution of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy at various CRs [192]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher. Figure 8 shows the distributions of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy grains (a-d) and dendrites (e-h) at various CR values as follows: The CR of the alloys is 0.3 K/s for alloy A (a,e), 3.4 K/s for alloy B (b,f), 10.4 K/s for alloy C (c,g), and 66.2 K/s for alloy D (d,h). The grain structure of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys B (b), C (c), and D (d) exhibits deformation, flattening, and inclined shear bands. As the CR gradually increases in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys A to D (e-h), the grain distribution becomes more uniform, and the coarse grain decreases.
Figure 9. Columnar dendrite sonification process at different CRs [210]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.
Figure 10. (a). Liquid-solid interface position and (b). solid volume fraction at different CRs [210]. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.

7. Conclusion:

Summary of Key Findings:

CR as a Pivotal Factor: Cooling Rate (CR) is a pivotal factor in aluminum alloy solidification, accelerating nucleation and limiting atomic diffusion, leading to refined grain structures and enhanced mechanical properties.
CR and Grain Structure: Higher CRs result in finer SDAS and evenly spaced grains, beneficial for applications requiring high wear resistance and tensile strength. Conversely, lower CRs allow for extended grain growth, resulting in coarser grains with reduced internal stress, which improves ductility and toughness.
CR and Solid Solution: High CRs encourage supersaturated solid solutions and the formation of metastable precipitates like β" (MgSi) and η' (MgZn), maximizing yield strength and hardness, particularly in 2XXX, 6XXX, and 7XXX series aluminum alloys.
CR and Equilibrium Phases: Slower CRs in some aluminum alloys promote the formation of equilibrium phases such as θ (Al2Cu) and stable MgZn2, improving toughness, albeit often at the expense of hardness. Post-process heat treatments are crucial for controlling precipitation dynamics and achieving desired performance.
CR in Advanced Manufacturing: Advanced methods like LPBF and DED utilize very high CRs (up to 10^7 K/s) to produce alloys with more uniform microstructures and fewer defects, resulting in dense, high-performance structures with superior fatigue resistance.
CR in Traditional Processes: Traditional processes like casting, forging, and welding benefit from moderate to low CRs to optimize precipitate formation and larger SDAS, balancing strength with malleability. Controlled CRs in these processes directly influence final alloy characteristics, allowing precise tailoring for specific mechanical requirements.
Predictive Modeling: Predictive modeling techniques like Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction, Newton's Law of Cooling, and Quench Factor Analysis (QFA) are essential for controlling CR and guiding manufacturing processes to tailor microstructural and mechanical properties.
Model Validation: Numerical and analytical models are enhanced by thermal imaging, embedded thermocouples, and phase-field simulations for real-world validation, ensuring accurate CR values for industrial applications, especially under high cooling gradients.
CR Benefits for Aerospace Alloys: High-strength aerospace alloys like aluminum alloys 2024 and 7075 benefit significantly from rapid cooling, which produces fine-grained, high-yield structures crucial for high-stress, weight-sensitive applications.
CR Benefits for Structural and Automotive Alloys: For structural and automotive applications, alloys like aluminum alloy 6061 and aluminum alloy A356 with controlled CRs exhibit mixed-phase microstructures with dispersed secondary phases, providing both strength and flexibility.

Academic Significance of the Study:

This review underscores significant gaps in the current understanding of Cooling Rate (CR) effects across various aluminum alloy compositions and manufacturing conditions. It highlights the need for more research, particularly concerning the potential of phase change under different CRs and the correlation between CR and phase transformation, especially in modern AM processes. The study emphasizes the lack of research on how CR affects microstructural and diffusional changes, despite their crucial roles in determining alloy properties.

Practical Implications:

The findings of this review offer practical guidance for optimizing manufacturing processes of aluminum alloys by precisely controlling Cooling Rates (CRs). By understanding the relationship between CR and microstructure, engineers can tailor CR parameters in casting, forging, welding, and additive manufacturing to achieve desired mechanical properties such as strength, ductility, hardness, and fatigue resistance. The review also emphasizes the importance of utilizing and validating numerical and analytical models for CR prediction and optimization in industrial settings.

Limitations of the Study and Areas for Future Research:

This review identifies several limitations and areas for future research:

Data Gaps: A significant lack of dependable data exists regarding phase changes in various aluminum alloys under different Cooling Rates (CRs).
Limited Focus on Microstructural and Diffusional Changes: Current research is heavily weighted towards temperature effects, with insufficient studies specifically examining how CR directly affects microstructural and diffusional changes in aluminum alloy compositions.
Phase Transition Impacts: The impact of CR on phase transitions in aluminum alloys remains an under-explored area requiring further investigation.
Need for Systematic Studies: There is a need for more systematic studies on CR and aluminum alloys across diverse chemical compositions and manufacturing conditions to build a more comprehensive understanding.
Validation of Solidification Influence: Further validation is needed to confirm the notion that the solidification of CR influences microstructural alterations.

Future research should focus on addressing these gaps by conducting systematic experimental and modeling studies to deepen the understanding of CR effects on phase transformations, microstructural evolution, and diffusional changes in a wider range of aluminum alloys and manufacturing processes, particularly in the context of additive manufacturing.

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This material is "Atiqur Rahman"'s paper: Based on "A Comprehensive Study of Cooling Rate Effects on Diffusion, Microstructural Evolution, and Characterization of Aluminum Alloys".
Paper Source: https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13020160

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Tags: Al-Si alloy; ,aluminum alloy; ,aluminum alloys; ,CAD; ,CFD; ,Computational fluid dynamics (CFD); ,Die casting; ,Mechanical Property; ,Microstructure; ,secondary dendrite arm spacing