Medium temperature heat pipes – Applications, challenges and future direction

This introductory paper is the research content of the paper "Medium temperature heat pipes – Applications, challenges and future direction" published by [Applied Thermal Engineering].

Fig. 5. STRATFLY MR3 Hypersonic vehicle concept by Fusaro et al. [78].
Fig. 5. STRATFLY MR3 Hypersonic vehicle concept by Fusaro et al. [78].

1. Overview:

  • Title: Medium temperature heat pipes – Applications, challenges and future direction
  • Author: Thomas C. Werner, Yuying Yan, Tassos Karayiannis, Volker Pickert, Rafal Wrobel, Richard Law
  • Publication Year: 2024
  • Published Journal/Society: Applied Thermal Engineering
  • Keywords: Heat pipe, Thermal management, Heat transfer, Medium temperature fluids, Two-phase heat transfer

2. Abstract

Heat pipes have been used for thermal management, especially in aerospace, electronics, automotive, and power generation. The operating temperature range requires specific fluid and casing materials. There is increasing demand for heat pipes operating in the 300-600°C ("medium" or "intermediate" temperature) range, but development is lacking due to a shortage of suitable fluids. This paper summarizes efforts in developing medium temperature heat pipes, highlighting promising fluids and wall materials. It explores (a) current applications, (b) medium temperature fluid investigations, (c) principles behind heat pipe performance prediction, and (d) suggests future research directions, including a standardized fluid assessment framework.

3. Research Background:

Background of the research topic:

Thermal management is crucial in modern engineering due to increasing power densities. Heat pipes offer superior heat transfer capabilities compared to conventional solid materials.

Status of previous research:

Heat pipes have been developed for various temperature ranges, from cryogenic to high temperature. However, the medium temperature range (300-600°C) faces challenges due to limited fluid options. Existing research often lacks continuity, with a focus on long-term compatibility tests and limited analytical approaches.

Need for research:

There's a growing demand for heat pipes in the medium temperature range, but development is hindered by the lack of suitable working fluids. Previous work is fragmented, and a comprehensive solution is missing.

4. Research purpose and research question:

Research purpose:

To summarize major efforts in developing medium temperature heat pipes and to highlight the most promising fluids and wall materials.

Core research:

(a) current applications that could benefit from medium temperature heat pipes, (b) existing research on medium temperature fluids, (c) principles behind heat pipe performance prediction, fluid analysis, fluid/metal compatibility, and fluid selection, and (d) potential future research directions, particularly focusing on novel heat pipe fluids.

5. Research methodology

This paper is a literature review. It summarizes and analyzes existing research on medium temperature heat pipes. The paper explores current applications, previous work on medium temperature fluids, principles of heat pipe performance, and future research directions. A fluid assessment framework is proposed. The research design is a review and analysis of published literature, including experimental studies, numerical modeling, and theoretical analyses. Data collection involved searching databases like Scopus.com [29] for relevant publications. The analysis includes qualitative assessment of research findings and quantitative comparison of fluid properties and performance.

6. Key research results:

Key research results and presented data analysis:

  • Renewables Market: Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants often operate in the medium temperature range (Table 1, Fig. 3).
  • Waste Heat Recovery: High-temperature waste heat (above 300°C) represents a significant portion of global heat recovery potential [68].
  • Nuclear Market: Diverter target plates in nuclear fusion reactors operate within the 300-600°C range (Fig. 4).
  • Other Markets: Hypersonic vehicle thermal management (Fig. 5) and engine wall cooling also present potential applications.
  • Challenges with Existing Fluids:
    • Mercury: Toxic, high density, and wick wetting issues [83, 97].
    • Sulphur and Sulphur/Iodine: High viscosity, low thermal conductivity, and chemically aggressive [108].
    • Organic Fluids: Thermal decomposition between 300°C and 400°C [82, 93, 102, 104, 106].
    • Potassium and Caesium: Low vapor density at medium temperatures, handling difficulties, and extreme sensitivity to moisture [79].
    • Sodium/Potassium (Na/K): "Geyser boiling" phenomenon at temperatures below 800°C [105, 109, 110].
  • Categorical Analysis of Fluids:
    • Organic Fluids: Generally limited to below 400°C due to thermal decomposition (Fig. 6, 7, 8, Table 4).
    • Inorganic Fluids (Halides): Antimony Tribromide shows the best potential among tested halides, but still limited to low heat flux density applications above 320°C (Fig. 9, 10, 11, Table 5).
    • Liquid Metals: Mercury and Caesium can theoretically operate within the medium temperature range, but face practical challenges (Fig. 12, 13, 14, Table 6, 7).
    • Inorganic Mixtures: Sulphur/Iodine and Sodium/Potassium show promise but lack sufficient property data (Table 8).
  • A fluid analysis process is proposed (Fig. 15).
Fig. 1. Papers published directly relating to heat pipes. Produced using data from Scopus.com [29].
Fig. 1. Papers published directly relating to heat pipes. Produced using data from Scopus.com [29].
Fig. 3. Share of subjects linked to the exploration of medium temperature heat pipes taken from 70 papers on the topic spanning 1972 to 2022. Produced using data from Scopus.com [29].
Fig. 3. Share of subjects linked to the exploration of medium temperature heat pipes taken from 70 papers on the topic spanning 1972 to 2022. Produced using data from Scopus.com [29].
Table 1 Specifications for main large-scale concentrated solar power plants Produced using data from He et al. [67]. Third generation plants are exploring the use of silica sand, calcinated flint clay and ceramic particles as well as a range of chlorinated or carbonated molten salts as heat absorbing mediums within the medium temperature range.
Table 1
Specifications for main large-scale concentrated solar power plants Produced using data from He et al. [67]. Third generation plants are exploring the use of silica sand, calcinated flint clay and ceramic particles as well as a range of chlorinated or carbonated molten salts as heat absorbing mediums within the medium temperature range.
Fig. 4. Diverter target plate structure. A re-creation of images from You et al. [74].
Fig. 4. Diverter target plate structure. A re-creation of images from You et al. [74].
Table 2 Summary of key life tests completed for alternative heat pipe fluids in the medium temperature range dating back to 1960.1
Table 2 Summary of key life tests completed for alternative heat pipe fluids in the medium temperature range dating back to 1960.1
Fig. 14. Maximum thermal transport capacity for main liquid metals explored for use in the medium temperature range. Modelled with heat pipe dimensions presented in the study by Werner et al. [114] (see Table 3).
Fig. 14. Maximum thermal transport capacity for main liquid metals explored for use in the medium temperature range. Modelled with heat pipe dimensions presented in the study by Werner et al. [114] (see Table 3).

List of figure names:

  • Fig. 1. Papers published directly relating to heat pipes. Produced using data from Scopus.com [29].
  • Fig. 2. Share of top 13 countries contributing to heat pipe research data presented in Fig. 1 for years 1960-2022. Produced using data from Scopus.com [29].
  • Fig. 3. Share of subjects linked to the exploration of medium temperature heat pipes taken from 70 papers on the topic spanning 1972 to 2022. Produced using data from Scopus.com [29].
  • Fig. 4. Diverter target plate structure. A re-creation of images from You et al. [74].
  • Fig. 5. STRATFLY MR3 Hypersonic vehicle concept by Fusaro et al. [78].
  • Fig. 6. Liquid transport factor for main organic fluids explored for use in the medium temperature range.
  • Fig. 7. Vapour pressure for main organic fluids explored for use in the medium temperature range.
  • Fig. 8. Maximum thermal transport capacity for main organic fluids explored for use in the medium temperature range. Modelled with heat pipe dimensions presented in the study by Werner et al. [114] (see Table 3).
  • Fig. 9. Liquid transport factor for main halide fluids explored for use in the medium temperature range.
  • Fig. 10. Vapour pressure for main halides explored for use in the medium temperature range.
  • Fig. 11. Maximum thermal transport capacity for main halide fluids explored for use in the medium temperature range. Modelled with heat pipe dimensions presented in the study by Werner et al. [114] (see Table 3).
  • Fig. 12. Liquid transport factor for main liquid metal fluids explored for use in the medium temperature range.
  • Fig. 13. Vapour pressure for main liquid metals explored for use in the medium temperature range.
  • Fig. 14. Maximum thermal transport capacity for main liquid metal fluids explored for use in the medium temperature range. Modelled with heat pipe dimensions presented in the study by Werner et al. [114] (see Table 3).
  • Fig. 15. Fluid analysis and selection process.

7. Conclusion:

Summary of key findings:

There is an increasing need for medium temperature heat pipes. Organic fluids are generally unsuitable above 400°C. Halides show limited performance. Liquid metals have the best theoretical performance but face practical challenges. Some mixtures show promise but lack data.
{Summary of research results. Academic significance of the research, practical implications of the research}
The paper concludes that more research is needed, particularly in developing and characterizing new fluids. A standardized fluid assessment framework is proposed to accelerate research. The development of central databases and heat pipe modeling tools is crucial.

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