고성능 공기-냉매 열교환기 설계 및 제조

1. 개요:

  • 제목: 고성능, 저충전량 열교환기 설계 및 제조 (Design and Manufacturing of High Performance, Reduced Charge Heat Exchangers)
  • 저자: Reinhard Radermacher 외
  • 발행 연도: 2023
  • 발행 학술지/학회: 미국 에너지부 (Department of Energy) 최종 기술 보고서 (Final Technical Report)
  • Keywords: 열교환기, 최적화, 다중 물리 해석, 첨가제 제조, 비원형 튜브, 저GWP 냉매

2. 연구 배경:

주거 및 상업용 건물의 에너지 소비량 중 냉난방 및 냉동 시스템(HVAC&R)이 차지하는 비중이 상당하며, 냉매 충전량 감소를 통한 온실가스 배출 저감이 중요한 과제로 떠오르고 있다. 기존의 원형 튜브 및 핀을 사용하는 열교환기는 성능 향상에 한계가 있으며, 냉매 충전량 감소를 위해 더욱 소형화된 설계가 필요하다. 따라서, 냉매 충전량 감소와 동시에 성능 향상을 달성할 수 있는 차세대 열교환기 개발이 필수적이다. 기존 연구는 주로 단일 물리(열-유체) 해석 및 형상 최적화에 집중해왔으며, 제조의 어려움과 운영상의 문제점(유동 불균형, 오염, 발진 및 진동) 등 실제 상용화에 대한 고려가 부족했다.

Figure 59: HX Prototype 10-E2: (Top) Tube bundle; (Middle) Header after casting; (Bottom) Cut header with tube ends showing.
Figure 59: HX Prototype 10-E2: (Top) Tube bundle; (Middle) Header after casting; (Bottom) Cut header with tube ends showing.

3. 연구 목적 및 연구 질문:

  • 연구 목적: 냉매 충전량을 30% 감소시키면서 기존 시스템 대비 25% 더 가볍고 25% 더 소형화된 고성능 공기-냉매 열교환기를 설계 및 제조하는 것.
  • 핵심 연구 질문:
    • 비원형 튜브를 사용한 열교환기의 열-유체 성능, 기계적 강도, 소음 성능 및 내구성을 동시에 고려한 다중 물리 최적화 프레임워크를 어떻게 개발할 수 있는가?
    • 비원형 튜브 제조 및 튜브-헤더 통합을 위한 새로운 제조 기술을 어떻게 개발할 수 있는가?
    • 개발된 열교환기의 성능을 실험적으로 검증하고 실제 HVAC&R 시스템 적용 가능성을 평가할 수 있는가?
  • 연구 가설: 비원형 튜브를 사용하고 다중 물리 최적화를 적용하면 냉매 충전량 감소 및 성능 향상을 동시에 달성할 수 있다.

4. 연구 방법론:

  • 연구 설계: 다중 물리 최적화 프레임워크를 개발하여 비원형 튜브를 이용한 열교환기를 설계하고, 새로운 제조 기술을 개발하여 시제품을 제작하고 실험적으로 검증하는 과정으로 설계되었다.
  • 데이터 수집 방법: CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics), FEA (Finite Element Analysis), 실험적 측정 (Component-level & System-level)
  • 분석 방법: 다중 물리 최적화 프레임워크 (AAO, MOGA), 그리드 수렴 지수 (GCI), 메타 모델 (Kriging), 통계적 유의성 검정
  • 연구 대상 및 범위: 다양한 냉매 (R410A, R32, R454B, R290, 초임계 이산화탄소) 및 응용 분야 (에어컨, 히트펌프, 가스 냉각기)를 포함하여 광범위하게 열교환기 최적화를 수행했다. 시제품 제작 및 실험 검증을 위해 구리 및 알루미늄 소재를 사용하였으며, 첨가제 제조 방식도 고려되었다.

5. 주요 연구 결과:

  • 새로운 다중 물리 최적화 프레임워크를 통해 냉매 충전량을 최대 40% 감소시키면서, 기존 열교환기 대비 열-유체 성능을 15% 이상 향상시키는 비원형 튜브 열교환기를 설계하였다.
  • 기계적 강도 및 소음 성능에 대한 다중 물리 모델을 개발하고 검증하여, 제조 및 운영상의 문제점을 해결하였다.
  • 비원형 튜브 제조를 위한 새로운 제조 기술을 개발하고 시제품 제작 및 실험적 검증을 수행하였다. 총 10개의 시제품을 제작하였으며, 그 중 9개는 기존 제조 방식을 활용하고 1개는 첨가제 제조 방식을 활용하였다.
  • 시제품 성능 실험 결과, 시뮬레이션 결과와 ±10~20% 이내 오차로 일치하여, 제안된 프레임워크의 예측 정확도가 높음을 확인했다. 특히, 건조 조건에서의 성능 예측 정확도가 우수하였다. 습윤 조건에서는 냉매 유동 불균형 현상이 예상보다 심각하게 발생하여 시뮬레이션과 실험 결과의 차이가 발생하였으나, 열 부하 예측은 우수한 정확도를 보였다.
  • Figure List
    • Figure 1: Cost comparison of AM to Conventional manufacturing methods [134].
    • Figure 2: Numerical optimization framework.
    • Figure 3: (Left) Generic multi-pass tube-fin HX; (Right) Generic HX with shape-optimized tubes.
    • Figure 4: HX depth wise cross-section: Design variable definitions for non-round tubes.
    • Figure 5: HX pass configuration definition: (left) one fluid pass; (right) three fluid passes.
    • Figure 6: Tube shape parameterization using NURBS.
    • Figure 7: Automated FEA simulation flowchart.
    • Figure 8: CFD domain, mesh, and boundary conditions.
    • Figure 9: Dry air thermal-hydraulic performance metamodel verification & statistics.
    • Figure 10: Aeroacoustics simulation CFD domain, boundary conditions, & mesh.
    • Figure 11: Aeroacoustics performance correlation verification & statistics.
    • Figure 12: Two-dimensional FEA model, boundary conditions, and mesh.
    • Figure 13: Sample FEA model contours of von Mises stress.
    • Figure 14: Boundary conditions for FEA simulations: (left) 2D and (right) 3D.
    • Figure 15: Tube-level mechanical performance metamodel verification & statistics.
    • Figure 16: Internal flow computational domain, boundary conditions, & sample mesh.
    • Figure 17: Internal flow correlation development framework.
    • Figure 18: CFD-based Nusselt number correlations verification and statistics.
    • Figure 19: CFD-based friction factor correlation (full tube flow) verification and statistics.
    • Figure 20: CFD-based friction factor correlation (developing flow) verification and statistics.
    • Figure 21: CFD-based friction factor correlation (fully developed flow) verification and statistics.
    • Figure 22: Dehumidification modeling methodology.
    • Figure 23: Dehumidification model: (Left) Sample domain & boundary conditions; (Right) Sample mesh.
    • Figure 24: CNTHX prototype.
    • Figure 25: CNTHX experimental validation: (Left) Outlet dry bulb temperature; (Right) Outlet relative humidity.
    • Figure 26: CNTHX dehumidification experimental validation: (Left) Outlet absolute humidity; (Right) Absolute humidity change.
    • Figure 27: CNTHX dehumidification experimental validation: Sensible heat ratio.
    • Figure 28: Lewis number parametric study results: (Top Left) Inlet air velocity (Reynolds number); (Top Right) Sensible heat transfer coefficient and mass transfer coefficient vs. inlet air velocity; (Bottom Left) Inlet relative humidity; (Bottom Right) Wall temperature.
    • Figure 29: CFD-based Lewis number correlation validation & statistics.
    • Figure 30: Optimal condenser designs colored by HX face area.
    • Figure 31: Optimal condenser designs colored by HX core material volume.
    • Figure 32: Optimal designs colored by HX core internal volume.
    • Figure 33: Sample non-round tube HX produced by additive manufacturing [16].
    • Figure 34: Single tube deformation test: (a) Experimental setup; (b) Numerical model.
    • Figure 35: Single tube deformation test: (a) Experimental setup; (b) Numerical model.
    • Figure 36: Single tube fatigue analysis: 4 tube designs using copper and aluminum.
    • Figure 37: Single copper tube fatigue analysis: Contours of logarithmic life cycles.
    • Figure 38: Single aluminum tube fatigue analysis: Contours of logarithmic life cycles.
    • Figure 39: Header cross-sections: (Left) Square; (Middle) Half-Round; (Right) Round.
    • Figure 40: Header stress distribution: (Left) Square; (Middle) Half-Round; (Right) Round.
    • Figure 41: Header cross-sections: (Left) Square; (Middle) Half-Round; (Right) Round.
    • Figure 42: Header stress distribution: (Left) Square; (Middle) Half-Round; (Right) Round.
    • Figure 43: Header stress analysis for imperfect tube-solder joints.
    • Figure 44: Solder stress distribution: (Left) Ideal fit vs. (Right) tube with 1.5° rotation.
    • Figure 45: Plastic stress-strain curves: (Top) SAC 396; (Bottom) Copper.
    • Figure 46: Solder plastic stress analysis: (Left) Plastic stress; (Right) Plastic strain.
    • Figure 47: Schematic model of full tube-header assembly.
    • Figure 48: Tube shapes of interest: (Top Left) Round; (Top Right) Ellipse; (Bottom) Non-Round Tube.
    • Figure 49: Tube bundle stress contours: (Top Left) Round; (Top Right) Ellipse; (Bottom) Non-Round Tube.
    • Figure 50: Tube bundle solder stress contours: (Top Left) Round; (Top Right) Ellipse; (Bottom) Non-Round Tube.
    • Figure 51: Header stress contours: (Top Left) Round; (Top Right) Ellipse; (Bottom) Non-Round Tube.
    • Figure 52: Life repeats vs. stress scale for different tube-header designs.
    • Figure 53: Images of HX prototypes manufactured during the project.
    • Figure 54: Non-round copper tube profile manufactured by drawing at STP.
    • Figure 55: Non-round aluminum tube profile manufactured by extrusion at Brazeway.
    • Figure 56: Non-round aluminum tube profile manufactured by extrusion at MetalKraft.
    • Figure 57: HX Prototype 6-C3: (Left, Middle) Under construction; (Right) Pressure Test and Baffle location shown in red.
    • Figure 58: HX Prototype 7-C4.
    • Figure 59: HX Prototype 10-E2: (Top) Tube bundle; (Middle) Header after casting; (Bottom) Cut header with tube ends showing.
    • Figure 60: Al 6063 tubes for all-aluminum HX prototype (one bundle shown).
    • Figure 61: Aluminum HX assembly (~75% complete HX prototype shown).
    • Figure 62: Aluminum HX pre-braze: (Left) Complete frame; (Right) Open tank ends.
    • Figure 63: (Left) Full aluminum HX prototype before brazing at Diesel Radiator; (Right) Post-braze inspection revealed small gaps near tube trailing edges.
    • Figure 64: Full aluminum HX prototype with multiple post-braze leaks.
    • Figure 65: Adhesive leak repair test: (Left) Pre-curing; (Middle) Post-curing; (Right) Pressure test.
    • Figure 66: Adhesive leak repair #1: (Top) Adhesive application; (Bottom) Leak test.
    • Figure 67: Adhesive leak repair and pressure test #2 showing small leaks.
    • Figure 68: Aluminum HX post-pressure test: (Top) Tank-header joint failure; (Bottom) Poor brazed interfaces between tube-header and header-tank.
    • Figure 69: Schematic of closed loop wind tunnel.
    • Figure 70: Schematic of pumped refrigerant loop.
    • Figure 71: Blockage testing time lapse for (Top) 3-C1 & (Bottom): 6-C3.
    • Figure 72: Prototype #1 energy balance: (Left) dry evaporator condition; (Right) dehumidifying condition.
    • Figure 73: Prototype #1 validation: (Left) dry evaporator capacity & airside pressure drop; (Right) dehumidifying condition capacity.
    • Figure 74: Prototype #1 wet condition experiment: (Left) air pressure drop; (Right); water droplets on HX tubes.
    • Figure 75: Prototype #2 condenser experimental validation: (Left) energy balance; (Right).
    • Figure 76: Component-level experimental validation summary: capacity.
    • Figure 77: Component-level experimental validation summary: airside pressure drop.
    • Figure 78: (a) Packaged A/C unit (b) Unit top view without top cover (c) Baseline tube-fin evaporator.
    • Figure 79: Evaporator closed loop schematic and connection to packaged unit.
    • Figure 80: Packaged unit test facility in environmental chamber.
    • Figure 81: (a) NTHX-FSE overview including front and side views and CAD rendering; (b) Installation orientation in packaged unit.
    • Figure 82: Modified NTHX-FSE: (Top) New inlet and outlet refrigerant ports; (Middle) Flow path; (Bottom) Installed in packaged unit.
    • Figure 83: Schematic of system model.

6. 결론 및 논의:

본 연구는 냉매 충전량 감소 및 성능 향상을 동시에 달성할 수 있는 고성능 비원형 튜브 열교환기 설계 및 제조를 위한 새로운 다중 물리 최적화 프레임워크를 제시했다. 개발된 프레임워크는 다양한 냉매 및 응용 분야에 적용 가능하며, 기존 설계 방식에 비해 상당한 시간 및 비용 절감 효과를 제공한다. 실험 결과는 시뮬레이션 결과와 양호한 일치성을 보여, 프레임워크의 높은 예측 정확도를 입증하였다. 하지만, 습윤 조건에서 냉매 유동 불균형과 응축수 브리징 현상으로 인한 예측 오차가 발생한 점과 알루미늄 열교환기 제작 시 브레이징 과정에서 문제 발생으로 인한 시제품 제작 실패는 연구의 한계점으로 남는다.

7. 향후 후속 연구:

  • 다양한 냉매 및 운전 조건에 대한 습윤 조건 성능 예측 정확도 향상 및 냉매 유동 불균형 해결을 위한 추가 연구
  • 더욱 경제적이고 대량 생산 가능한 비원형 튜브 제조 기술 개발
  • 헤더 설계 최적화 및 첨가제 제조 방식 활용에 대한 추가 연구
  • 실제 HVAC&R 시스템에 적용하여 시스템 성능 향상 효과 및 상용화 가능성을 평가하는 연구

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